tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-13149309972834534042024-03-13T13:26:07.673-07:00Evolution Of InventionsA Journey of History Inventions from Past to Present...Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.comBlogger45125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-28960421314216865792017-07-18T12:05:00.001-07:002021-05-19T00:29:37.693-07:00CONTACT LENS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: large; text-align: left;">Contact
lenses have a remarkable history that goes back more than 500 years.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">In
1508, </span><span style="background: white;">Leonardo da Vinci is often credited with the first conception
of the idea of contact lenses, in </span><em style="box-sizing: border-box;">Codex
Of The Eye, Manual D. , </em><em><span style="font-style: normal;">where</span></em> he explained a
means of manipulating the corneal power of eye by either submerging the entire
head in a bowl of water or by wearing a water-filled glass hemisphere over the
eye. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">Actually
he wasn't really talking about correcting vision at that point, but the idea
behind the contact lens at its most basic came from manipulating the cornea's
power.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">in </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box;">1636, </span>René Descartes conceptualized a similar
idea where a hollow glass tube filled with water placed directly against the
cornea, with the protruding end being shaped in order to correct vision. The
only drawback of the idea was that it made blinking of eyes completely impossible.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">Basically,
there were a lot of crazy ideas thrown down on paper before anyone attempted to
actually follow them through to their sharp conclusion, be it vision or pain.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">In </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box;">1845,</span> Sir John Herschel published two new ideas in the
Encyclopedia Metropolitana. The first was for a spherical capsule of glass
filled with animal jelly, while the second was a mould of the cornea that could
be impressed on a transparent medium. While there's no evidence that these
ideas were ever tested or not.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"> In
1887, German glassblower F. E. Muller developed the first eye
covering that could be both seen through, as well as tolerated. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">But until
this point in time, any relatively comfortable device that could be placed on
the eye made vision more difficult, or impossible, and any device that improved
vision was unbearably uncomfortable.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">In 1888,
when German ophthalmologist Adolph Fick
started forcing fitted blown-glass shells into the eyes of bunnies, the technology's
first live test subjects. Fick's design was aimed at helping patients with
Keratoconus, a problem that renders the cornea cone-shaped. The glass shells
were meant to push the eye flatter, not to improve, say, near sightedness.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">His
lenses were made from heavy blown glass, and were roughly two centimeters in
diameter. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">But
these lenses were much more comfortable than previous attempts because of the
filling of the empty space between cornea/callosity and glass with a dextrose
solution. Although this was a huge step forward in lens technology but still they
were rather large, inconvenient, and could only be worn for a few hours at a
time.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">At the
same time, German medical student August Muller was experimenting with glass
discs aimed at improving vision-his own, actually. His 1889 thesis recounts
that although he could get the lenses fit on his eyes, violent pain kicked in
about a half an hour after insertion. But with the short-lived fix, his myopia
improved.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">Those lenses
were not the small, light things we have today. That was a kind of big glass sheets—about twice the size of
current disposables covering even the whites of the eyes. The shape exacerbated
problem number two. Glass was the wrong material. Eyes need to breathe. Every
other tissue in the body is delivered oxygen via red blood cells but the cornea
sucks in oxygen directly from the atmosphere. "Glass is impermeable to
oxygen. If the oxygen doesn't get to the eye, the cornea starts to swell,"
explains Nathan Efron, professor of optometry at Australia's Queensland
University of Technology.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;"> It
wasn't until 1948, when optical technician Kevin Tuohy realized by accident
that contacts didn't have to cover the whites of the eyes at all. While Tuohy
was lathing the lens, a recently invented transparent plastic, the part
supposed to cover the whites of the eyes dropped off. This left him thinking. So
he polished down the disk's edges and tried the slimmer model himself. To his
surprise, it actually stayed put—even after blinking.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">This increased
comfort allowed to be worn up to sixteen
hours a day, where as previous lenses could only be worn for 3-4 hours at a
time. As manufacturing technology improved into the 1960s, and lens designs
became more sophisticated, Plexiglas corneal lenses became the first contacts
to have mass appeal. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">The
early research into soft lenses was done by Czech chemists Otto Wichterle and
Drahoslav Lím, which began in </span><span style="box-sizing: border-box;">1959</span>. Several years
later, in <span style="box-sizing: border-box;">1965</span>, the National Patent Development Corporation in the United
States purchased the rights to produce the lenses, but sublicensed them to
Bausch & Lomb.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">Gradually,
over the next 25 years, the polymers from which soft lenses are manufactured
improved from time to time again. Increases in oxygen permeability and
wetability, made them more comfortable, and decreases in manufacturing costs
made them literally disposable. In fact, disposable soft contact lenses were
first conceived by British optometrist Rishi Agarwal in by 1972.</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">So over
and all Next time you pop in your lenses, give a little silent thanks to their
inventors that the material is soft and your eyes are in tact. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><span style="background: white;">This
wonderfully engineered tool for clear vision, invisible to both wearer and
admirer is today used by 120 million people around the world.</span><span style="background: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-80211023081880011692016-11-20T10:59:00.000-08:002016-11-20T10:59:36.025-08:00PHOTOCOPIER MACHINE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br /><br /><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are plenty of machines in each office nowadays – laptops, desk computers, lamps, printers, faxes, tablets, photocopiers, smart phones. All of these are suited for our needs and easy to work with, but the technology behind them is sometimes unknown. <br /><br />Today let us throw some light on one of the most common machines used worldwide i.e. photocopier machine. <br /><br />Photocopying is a process which makes paper copies of documents and other visual images quickly and cheaply.<br /><br />It was introduced by Xerox in the 1960s, and over the following 20 years it gradually replaced copies made by carbon paper, mimeograph machines and other duplicating machines. <br /><br />Chester Carlson, the inventor of photocopying, was originally a patent attorney and part time researcher and inventor. As he worked at his job, he noted that there never seemed to be enough carbon copies of patent specifications, and there seemed to be no quick or practical way of getting more. The choices were limited to sending for expensive photo copies, or having the documents retyped and then reread for errors.<br /><br />Carlson was frustrated from painful attacks of arthritis. He found this a painful and tedious process. This prompted him to conduct experiments in the area of photoconductivity, through which multiple copies could be made with minimal effort. <br /><br /><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoa7U2Su9rvjnCymssv5AXZ3x8DDAfrU3sAloaGmqWt74DT821Kp8TcDTvHRQ6B673-o6IRf0HGpvugyfnlfRAIT1HthWEkLem1oiNoyRiRuW8HOFRL0hWSfeZrK97-FOvyTvZGQCoaec/s1600/chester-carlson.jpg"><img border="0" height="315" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoa7U2Su9rvjnCymssv5AXZ3x8DDAfrU3sAloaGmqWt74DT821Kp8TcDTvHRQ6B673-o6IRf0HGpvugyfnlfRAIT1HthWEkLem1oiNoyRiRuW8HOFRL0hWSfeZrK97-FOvyTvZGQCoaec/s400/chester-carlson.jpg" width="400" /></a><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Carlson decided to dip into his meagre resources to pursue his research. He set up a small lab in nearby Astoria and hired an unemployed young physicist, a German refugee named Otto Kornei, to help with the lab work. <br /><br />It was here, in a rented second-floor room above a bar, where xerography was invented. <br /><br /><br />This is Carlson's account of that moment: "I went to the lab that day and Otto had a freshly-prepared sulfur coating on a zinc plate. We tried to see what we could do toward making a visible image. Otto took a glass microscope slide and printed on it in India ink the notation '<a href="https://inventionevolution.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">10-22-38 ASTORIA</a>.' We pulled down the shade to make the room as dark as possible, then he rubbed the sulfur surface vigorously with a handkerchief to apply an electrostatic charge, laid the slide on the surface and placed the combination under a bright incandescent lamp for a few seconds. The slide was then removed and lycopodium powder was sprinkled on the sulfur surface. By gently blowing on the surface, all the loose powder was removed and there was left on the surface a near-perfect duplicate in powder of the notation which had been printed on the glass slide”. </span><div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiV_FkPsu_qT6CkuwNX8J-tVtVwQFzwkkmTKlCoDARkK7kkkmGbWZeoi7efqlb5lQm9-l52DbznqTC5vIWyEVOjcrpGBUWmUpZnwf48ZJe6mdrnHT3LO7_IqOD1ZXphGZPJ4ZbLbI9SXK8/s1600/First_xerographic_copy_-_10-22-38_ASTORIA_.jpg"><img border="0" height="230" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiV_FkPsu_qT6CkuwNX8J-tVtVwQFzwkkmTKlCoDARkK7kkkmGbWZeoi7efqlb5lQm9-l52DbznqTC5vIWyEVOjcrpGBUWmUpZnwf48ZJe6mdrnHT3LO7_IqOD1ZXphGZPJ4ZbLbI9SXK8/s400/First_xerographic_copy_-_10-22-38_ASTORIA_.jpg" width="400" /></a><br /><br />This process was repeated several times to convince that it was true, then they made some permanent copies by transferring the powder images to wax paper and heating the sheets to melt the wax. <br /><br />Carlson tried to sell his invention to some companies, but because the process was still underdeveloped he failed.<br /><br />From 1939 to 1944, he was turned down by more than twenty companies. Even the National Inventors Council dismissed his work. How difficult it was to convince anyone that tiny plates and rough image held the key to a tremendous new industry. The years went by without a serious nibble. Carlson became discouraged and several times decided to drop the idea completely. But each time he returned to try again. <br /><br />Finally, in 1944, Battelle Memorial Institute, a non-profit research organization, in Columbus, Ohio, became interested, signed a royalty-sharing contract with Carlson, and began to develop the process.<br /><br />In 1947 Haloid, a small New York based organisation manufacturing and selling photographic paper at that time, approached Battelle to obtain a license to develop and market a copying machine based on this technology. Battelle entered into an agreement with Haloid (later to be known as Xerox), giving Haloid the right to develop a xerographic machine. <br /><br />In 1955, Haloid - by then <a href="https://inventionevolution.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Haloid Xerox</a> - produced Copyflo, the first automated xerographic machine. It produced enlarged prints on a continuous roll from microfilm originals, and spawned a line of Xerox microsystems products which are still turning significant profits. Copyflo was also the first product to use a drum, instead of a plate, as the photoconductive surface. The rotating drum, an ingenious solution to the problem of how to make copies quickly, has been used again and again in Xerox machines.<br /><br /><a href="https://inventionevolution.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"><img border="0" height="275" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjAm2CAmhDIQl1UIGVDIxj34v2h9VteZSyOzsS-EWAjvC_4P4cRMLiRrko5nxnmDwZ2aAoHIJWeWjmT2M5TCiDFfRWpwrs6lL5TKR-pte8BKpPri8RGqBz1dKBcRU1m-P97JOYst4IUKI/s400/914_smithsonian.jpg" width="400" /></a><br /><br />However, it wasn't until 22 years after electro photography had first been conceived that the first true office copier was produced. In 1958, the introduction of the first-ever commercial push button photocopier machine Model the “Xerox 914” turned into success. It was called ‘914’ because it could handle paper legal size paper which is 9 inches x 14 inches in size. The success of <a href="https://inventionevolution.blogspot.com/" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">“Xerox 914”</a> was so huge that the company changes its name to Haloid Xerox in 1958. <br /><br />The name was chosen based on the unique dry printing technique, and shortened to follow the model set by the other big company at the time – Kodak. Three years later, another renaming occurred and the company was called simply Xerox.<br /><br />This was the model that hit it big that by 1965 earned Xerox revenue over $500 million dollars and today Xerox is such a household name that people confuse the name of the company for the process called photocopying!<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /></span><div class="MsoNormal">
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-8312216356070005612016-11-18T02:50:00.001-08:002016-11-18T09:50:10.699-08:00CALCULATOR<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="background: rgb(242, 242, 242);"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">CALCULATOR</span></b><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Calculation was a need from
the early days when it was necessary to account to others for individual or
group actions, particularly in relation to maintaining inventories or
reconciling finances. Early man counted by means of matching one set of objects
with another set (stones and sheep). The operations of addition and subtraction
were simply the operations of adding or subtracting groups of objects to the
sack of counting stones or pebbles. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXAK687Vb4gGiVzs1rVZXFTt-xGYVQxULXthwr-FiU6aCDMLuKAsnPdPq8oxZLDA-fqHdAKCcgWOMGIxWjaPfXMZYFwFBz2g2iQzRlfSWtbT4stSgMnH3lqs3h8OwMLtY7lWym7K9kJvg/s1600/RomanAbacus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXAK687Vb4gGiVzs1rVZXFTt-xGYVQxULXthwr-FiU6aCDMLuKAsnPdPq8oxZLDA-fqHdAKCcgWOMGIxWjaPfXMZYFwFBz2g2iQzRlfSWtbT4stSgMnH3lqs3h8OwMLtY7lWym7K9kJvg/s320/RomanAbacus.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">ROMAN ABACUS</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In the very beginning, of course
was the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>abacus, a
sort of hand operated mechanical calculator using beads on rods, first used by
Sumerians and Egyptians around 2000 BC.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The principle was simple, a
frame holding a series of rods, with ten sliding beads on each. When all the
beads had been slid across the first rod, it was time to move one across on the
next, showing the number of tens, and thence to the next rod, showing hundreds,
and so on (with the ten beads on the initial row returned to the original
position).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">John
Napier dramatically advances the understanding of number relationships in 1614
with his invention of logarithms. Since logarithms are the foundation on which
the slide rule is built, its history rightly begins with him. His early concept
of simplifying mathematical calculations through logarithms makes possible the
slide rule as we know it today.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background: white;">Napier himself contributes<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background: white; border: 1pt none windowtext; color: windowtext; padding: 0in;">Napier’s
Bones</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">in
1617, calculating sticks based on the geologia (lattice) multiplication method.
In 1620<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background: white; border: 1pt none windowtext; color: windowtext; padding: 0in;">Edmund
Gunter of London</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background: white;"> </span></span><span style="background: white;">makes
a straight logarithmic scale and performs multiplication and division on it
with the use of a set of dividers, or calipers.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKh3Xc6-1U70BtMUzhPkNB0ILVm1TzUPk5uv8NVKEsN4lIg6DPM1MdCcKXJJosRXNwBCAkuH1wQ3lhe3Hqh8Pz8UxZhbCiL_VDem3ziH4_-TzfbZBhvpALdt0wjk2hmf5sA14Pmat2Z1k/s1600/vintage-slide-rule.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKh3Xc6-1U70BtMUzhPkNB0ILVm1TzUPk5uv8NVKEsN4lIg6DPM1MdCcKXJJosRXNwBCAkuH1wQ3lhe3Hqh8Pz8UxZhbCiL_VDem3ziH4_-TzfbZBhvpALdt0wjk2hmf5sA14Pmat2Z1k/s320/vintage-slide-rule.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background: white;">In about 1622 William Oughtred, an Anglican minister ...
today recognized as the inventor of the slide rule, places two such scales side
by side and slides them to read the distance relationships, thus multiplying
and dividing directly. He also develops a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background: white; border: 1pt none windowtext; color: windowtext; padding: 0in;">circular
slide rule</span><span style="background: white;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="background: white;">Real Rocket Scientists used slide rules to send Man to the
Moon - a Pickett model N600-ES was<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="background: white; color: windowtext;">taken
on the Apollo 13 moon mission in 1970</span><span style="background: white;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The 17th century marked the beginning of the history of
mechanical calculators, as it saw the invention of its first machines,
including Pascal's calculator. In 1642, Blaise Pascal had invented a machine
which he presented as being able to perform computations that were previously
thought to be only humanly possible, but he wasn't successful in creating an
industry.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator with a
sophisticated carry mechanism in 1642. After three years of effort and 50
prototypes he introduced his calculator to the public. He built twenty of these
machines in the following ten years.This machine could add and subtract two
numbers directly and multiply and divide by repetition. Since, unlike
Schickard's machine, the Pascaline dials could only rotate in one direction
zeroing it after each calculation required the operator to dial in all 9s and
then (method of re-zeroing) propagate a carry right through the machine.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-HY-BEtre4TPVW4CCrJgyOF2oLt3mzS0hU_wgELAtamTDuoSjlhz9kdOFOXGC7fT-GEQkye6VgGe4kaUpL2fjEJk9XSel6h0nmyBtD8-N-Xo_3_dKOB3PwbcLKCJt_Dg0ioIaBBi4-F0/s1600/stepped-reckoner.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-HY-BEtre4TPVW4CCrJgyOF2oLt3mzS0hU_wgELAtamTDuoSjlhz9kdOFOXGC7fT-GEQkye6VgGe4kaUpL2fjEJk9XSel6h0nmyBtD8-N-Xo_3_dKOB3PwbcLKCJt_Dg0ioIaBBi4-F0/s320/stepped-reckoner.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">STEPPED RECKONER</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In 1674, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz creates<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; padding: 0in;">Stepped Reckoner</span>. The device could add, subtract, multiply,
and divide.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLfGBPvKfNKC1n8Hm6Fh902mlZUAWkuUiyQGcwB1pqEHGVbhyKUwaG4hxuEXkw0WdyViNAfH0rrNAS9i0bZ5C_HEW3uxbhAkALhgNjqbN_8091kp2XRLWdBhXn9kvuPgYa92bvbLPOAIM/s1600/atithometer.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="186" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLfGBPvKfNKC1n8Hm6Fh902mlZUAWkuUiyQGcwB1pqEHGVbhyKUwaG4hxuEXkw0WdyViNAfH0rrNAS9i0bZ5C_HEW3uxbhAkALhgNjqbN_8091kp2XRLWdBhXn9kvuPgYa92bvbLPOAIM/s320/atithometer.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">ARITHOMETER</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Thomas’
arithmometer is a mechanical calculating machine designed to perform four basic
arithmetical operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
This machine was invented by the Frenchman Thomas de Colmar in 1820. This is
the first calculating machine that was commercialized and manufactured in large
quantities. The artithmometer practically dominated sales of calculating
machines during the second part of 19th century. During all his life Thomas de
Colmar was improving it. When he died in 1870, his son Thomas de Bojano, and
later engineer Louis Payen, continued improvements and the production.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNz0ya8Xn0H4gxmfX-O9GAUecvpAn3DAdw-HbWh4htWiuDAJGnA1h-p5NN8Nb0rh9whl0Ngu1uhBP9WxJ9GfsjfwA4a0-1UZvYHVwkDhhx93KPCMnSQDRYYWqt0IZ7YDijiimV_eXrL2s/s1600/comptometer.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="273" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNz0ya8Xn0H4gxmfX-O9GAUecvpAn3DAdw-HbWh4htWiuDAJGnA1h-p5NN8Nb0rh9whl0Ngu1uhBP9WxJ9GfsjfwA4a0-1UZvYHVwkDhhx93KPCMnSQDRYYWqt0IZ7YDijiimV_eXrL2s/s320/comptometer.JPG" width="320" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">A further step forward occurred in 1887 when Dorr. E. Felt’s
US-patented key driven ‘Comptometer’ took calculating into the push button age.
This machine, too, spurred a host of imitators.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The Curta calculator was developed in 1948 and, although
costly, became popular for its portability. This purely mechanical hand-held
device could do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. By the
early 1970s electronic pocket calculators ended manufacture of mechanical
calculators, although the Curta remains a popular collectable item.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio5rF7Y_bxu68G6rhUtTfM66RMtECWQu_bBOpv-3XJ0CQz7a9nhSKP2aPA4dvOJ9cNjsU8B5mFLlJNRkV9teHHa136jyFTHiDzaNjFGEDnP2eheMpOrhbQzgSXxDfb91whF2sg9TCE-c0/s1600/curta.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio5rF7Y_bxu68G6rhUtTfM66RMtECWQu_bBOpv-3XJ0CQz7a9nhSKP2aPA4dvOJ9cNjsU8B5mFLlJNRkV9teHHa136jyFTHiDzaNjFGEDnP2eheMpOrhbQzgSXxDfb91whF2sg9TCE-c0/s1600/curta.jpg" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The Curta
Calculator, resembling a pepper grinder with
numbers, is highly sought after by collectors of slide rules and similar calculating
devices. It was produced in two models:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul type="square">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Type I -Eight columns of numbers<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Type II -Eleven columns of numbers<o:p></o:p></span></li>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The Curta
Calculator came in a can, usually black,
two inches in diameter and four inches high. It was manufactured in
Liechtenstein (which borders Switzerland).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The
first mainframe computers, using firstly vacuum tubes and later transistors in
the logic circuits, appeared in the 1940s and 1950s. This technology was to
provide a stepping stone to the development of electronic calculators.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The
Casio Computer Company, in Japan, released the Model 14-A calculator in 1957,
which was the world's first all-electric (relatively) "compact"
calculator. It did not use electronic logic but was based on relay technology,
and was built into a desk.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Colossus was a specialised machine that basically performed
“exclusive or” (XOR) Boolean algorithms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However, it did this using hundred of thermionic valves as
electronic on/off switches, as well as an electronic display.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The application of this technology to the world’s first
general calculating computer had to wait until 1946 and the construction of the ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Computer) as a completely digital artillery firing table calculator also
capable of solving "a large class of numerical problems", including
the four basic arithmetical functions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJrSYCtx5dEimBkNOlC7jwCDgPaIxfP5TCbejEsV4YyvcMyMppEROng0jC22Tu5Dbk1If_HLZcMZGomJFbHQ98KRGiPiwJzcFG6lYQjf1TU_A4BJEoWfHX-e50SIYAckuaA2Mvio3DZEc/s1600/ENIAC.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="231" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJrSYCtx5dEimBkNOlC7jwCDgPaIxfP5TCbejEsV4YyvcMyMppEROng0jC22Tu5Dbk1If_HLZcMZGomJFbHQ98KRGiPiwJzcFG6lYQjf1TU_A4BJEoWfHX-e50SIYAckuaA2Mvio3DZEc/s320/ENIAC.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">ENIAC</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">ENIAC was 1,000 times faster than electro-mechanical
computers and could hold a ten-digit decimal number in memory. But to do this
required 17,468 vacuum tubes, 7,200 crystal diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000
resistors, 10,000 capacitors and around 5 million hand-soldered joints. It
weighed around 27 tonnes, took up 1800 square feet of floorspace and consumed
as much power as a small town. Not exactly a desktop solution.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">In 1961, </span></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial;">First electronic calculators invented: Anita MK VII
and Anita MK8.</span> This was the world’s first
all-electronic desktop calculator and it was developed in Britain by Control
Systems Ltd., marketed under its Bell Punch and Sumlock brands.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8ovwn064Nr-riISk1wb2OFsAxQJRgWVzJPOYNwUIcVHrdiYPFv02t2Ubl4D5x66IeaJgCA_VigDcwDaAetwFcb92ORDTmfvnbglEdoUzPZUguABa44AM7_NVVQ3y-t2wWnwsoWq4y6ck/s1600/anita-mk-vii.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" height="284" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8ovwn064Nr-riISk1wb2OFsAxQJRgWVzJPOYNwUIcVHrdiYPFv02t2Ubl4D5x66IeaJgCA_VigDcwDaAetwFcb92ORDTmfvnbglEdoUzPZUguABa44AM7_NVVQ3y-t2wWnwsoWq4y6ck/s320/anita-mk-vii.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">ANITA used the same push
button key layout as the company’s mechanical comptometers, but these were the
only moving parts. All the rest was done electronically, using a mix of vacuum
and cold cathode ‘Dekatron’ counting tubes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Nevertheless, as the only electronic desktop calculator
available, tens of thousands of ANITAs were sold worldwide up to 1964, when
three new transistorised competitors appeared; the American Friden 130 series,
the Italian IME 84, and the Sharp Compet CS10A from Japan.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Canon, Mathatronics, Olivetti,
SCM (Smith-Corona-Marchant), Sony, Toshiba, and Wang.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Four of these Beatles-era
transistorised calculators were especially significant, including Toshiba’s<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>"Toscal" BC-1411<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>calculator, which was remarkable in
using an early form of Random Access Memory (RAM) built from separate circuit
boards.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 7.5pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">The same year emerged the ELKA 22 designed by Bulgaria’s
Central Institute for Calculation Technologies and built at the Elektronika
factory in Sofia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 7.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Built like a T-64 tank and weighing around 8 kg, this was
the first calculator in the world to include a square root function.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ3KVi4I2XfgghqmzLNIXKqwEnAiAh8MMxFG11BbUeBupxxKUbbhIj-u-FUpD4ZeTDaEHRCqGLM5nXfxWl9Wt3bbw8tL0y2neiFDCIUnMoWooZtIszNWj8A9h3jDSNkzyVbUg3iqp1hF4/s1600/cal+tech.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJ3KVi4I2XfgghqmzLNIXKqwEnAiAh8MMxFG11BbUeBupxxKUbbhIj-u-FUpD4ZeTDaEHRCqGLM5nXfxWl9Wt3bbw8tL0y2neiFDCIUnMoWooZtIszNWj8A9h3jDSNkzyVbUg3iqp1hF4/s1600/cal+tech.jpg" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">Cal Tech</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 7.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />All electronic calculators to this point had been bulky and
heavy machines, costing more than many family cars of the period.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; margin: 0in 0in 7.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">However in 1967, Texas Instruments released their landmark
"Cal Tech" prototype,
a calculator that could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and print results
to a paper tape while being compact enough to be held in the hand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">1970
-- The first battery-operated "hand-held" calculators are sold. Most
are too large to actually be considered "pocket calculators," but
they are far smaller than anything seen before. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">In
mid-1970, Sharp begins to sell the QT-8B which, by using rechargeable
batteries, is a portable version of their desk-top QT-8. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Canon's
"Pocketronic" sales begin in the Fall of 1970 in Japan and February
1971 in the USA. Canon used Texas Instruments' ICs and thermal printer. Selling
for just under $400, the "Pocketronic" was a four function,
hand-held, printing calculator, with the only display being the printed tape
running out of the side of the machine. It looks much like the
"Cal-Tech" prototype (see 1965). The unit was rechargeable, used a
disposable tape cartridge, and weighed 1.8 lbs. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Later
that year, Sharp begins to market the EL-8, a "small" hand-holdable
calculator with four function calculating power, 8 numeric tubes for a display,
and rechargeable batteries. Redesigned from the QT-8 series, the unit is
smaller and weighs 1.7 lbs. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-650075436351083952016-11-16T02:21:00.000-08:002016-11-16T02:21:09.464-08:00VIDEO GAME<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 20.0pt;">VIDEO
GAME<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">If
you are a hardcore gamer, can you imagine your life without Nintendo Wii, Xbox
and Playstation? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Absolutely
not. Let us have a view how these video games were invented and how it evolved
over some decades.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In October 1958, Physicist William Higinbotham created what
is thought to be the first video game at a Brookhaven National Laboratory open
house. It was a very simple tennis game. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">It took Higinbotham only a couple of hours to conceive the
idea of a tennis game, and only a few days to put together the basic pieces.
Having worked on displays for radar systems and many other electronic devices,
Higinbotham had no trouble designing the simple game display.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Higinbotham made some drawings, and blueprints were drawn up.
Technician Robert Dvorak spent about two weeks building the device. After a
little debugging, the first video game was ready for its debut. They called the
game Tennis for Two.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfd-_Yeg5XpgfDQ5TKib0LLNd8BiHz4As_BQvAm6_Pn2XAxS879rSsviZzbjs6AAXSNTOk3KWPxaAcpD86uhkss2rn6OPGh2rqKOqSFTfrp2I6NvhLKNZaXk5q0fYxVq2nrq2Ph5FFhlE/s1600/tennistwo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfd-_Yeg5XpgfDQ5TKib0LLNd8BiHz4As_BQvAm6_Pn2XAxS879rSsviZzbjs6AAXSNTOk3KWPxaAcpD86uhkss2rn6OPGh2rqKOqSFTfrp2I6NvhLKNZaXk5q0fYxVq2nrq2Ph5FFhlE/s1600/tennistwo.jpg" /></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"><br />
<br />
<span style="background: white;">Players could turn a knob to adjust the angle of
the ball, and push a button to hit the ball towards the other player. As long
as they pressed the button when the ball was in their court, players couldn’t
actually miss the ball, but if they hit it at the wrong time or hit it at the
wrong angle, the ball wouldn’t make it over the net. Balls that hit the ground
would bounce like a real tennis ball. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="background: white; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Tennis for Two had none of the fancy graphics video games use
today. The cathode ray tube display simply showed a side view of a tennis court
represented by just two lines, one representing the ground and a one
representing the net. The ball was just a dot that bounced back and forth.
Players also had to keep score for themselves.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="background: white; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Later in 1961, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Steve Russell</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">,
a student at the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/id/A0832128"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Massachusetts
Institute of Technology</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">(MIT), creates<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Spacewar,
the first interactive computer game. It runs on a Digital PDP-1<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0526317.html"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">mainframe computer</span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">, and the graphics are made up of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/cgi-bin/id/A0804949.html"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">ASCII text characters</span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdFpLJSsGeVBLZFXC0qCBFp5QbSG-PVc90sDjmp3KH_2MQ0a9lUqbEgJGhYNMVT1K2DnZFdb2z5P5h_oKEUebl3xRYi-qts0LZ8ukI-wycPUn-nY2vzBLR4E8FjAGZeORi6I5wBj68-Eo/s1600/spacewar_screenshot.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdFpLJSsGeVBLZFXC0qCBFp5QbSG-PVc90sDjmp3KH_2MQ0a9lUqbEgJGhYNMVT1K2DnZFdb2z5P5h_oKEUebl3xRYi-qts0LZ8ukI-wycPUn-nY2vzBLR4E8FjAGZeORi6I5wBj68-Eo/s320/spacewar_screenshot.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">RUSSELL'S SPACEWAR</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">But
the first<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>true video game
wouldn't be invented until 1967 when an engineer named Ralph H. Baer created
the first<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>prototype<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of “Brown Box”, the world's first
video game<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>console. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
“Brown Box” was a vacuum tube-circuit that could be connected to a television
set and allowed two users to control cubes that chased each other on the
screen. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: #F9F9F9; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
“Brown Box” was licensed to Magnavox, which released the system as the</span><a href="http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1302004" target="_blank"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Magnavox Odyssey</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">in 1972.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEis0w_voamD3HnZyhmvOJixNYx8W4N0yjuTePMKhm7r-q1Pv1xN5Ci2s8bswIsazWb_XakGFD6tDEbVRK2biOV8ekCHXPab5KfCbGGhAGTbF7hti98c-X8YQyjiKn6hj2sQRmqIRQeKruA/s1600/brown+bx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEis0w_voamD3HnZyhmvOJixNYx8W4N0yjuTePMKhm7r-q1Pv1xN5Ci2s8bswIsazWb_XakGFD6tDEbVRK2biOV8ekCHXPab5KfCbGGhAGTbF7hti98c-X8YQyjiKn6hj2sQRmqIRQeKruA/s1600/brown+bx.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Baer,
often known as the “Father of Video Games," was the first person to create
a system that transformed electronic<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>signals
into pictures on a television<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>screen
via<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>a raster pattern…or what we
now know as a video game.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
original Magnavox Odyssey featured a few simple games, such as a chase game,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://wonderopolis.org/wonder/which-came-first-checkers-or-chess/" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">checkers</span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">, and a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://wonderopolis.org/wonder/can-you-hit-the-bullseye/" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">shooting game</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">using a rifle peripheral<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>device. The system came with two<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>paddle controllers, as well as a few
other accessories usually associated with board games. It was a huge success,
selling over 700,000 units in its first three years of production.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCzIpn-LmuMhS1SkWxyGmjwaEo7cu1lHiWrnTkkJ0vY_XW9ylrj0_aqwvSIcdxXcJhrH6JitBckGN7EFuwPx3GJ7473O2tSBHCmMe2eNKsrkJuQ9dcroPH5c18FAOcUR38b4A4oP4d3_U/s1600/odyssey.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" height="275" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCzIpn-LmuMhS1SkWxyGmjwaEo7cu1lHiWrnTkkJ0vY_XW9ylrj0_aqwvSIcdxXcJhrH6JitBckGN7EFuwPx3GJ7473O2tSBHCmMe2eNKsrkJuQ9dcroPH5c18FAOcUR38b4A4oP4d3_U/s320/odyssey.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">MAGNAVOX ODYSSEY</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background: white;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">But these consoles are a
very recent addition to the list of video games-related technologies that have
developed over the years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Perhaps, you might have
heard your parents mention ‘Atari’? Ask them, and they will tell you about
Pong, a game originally created by a company called Atari Incorporated, way
back in 1972 — 44 years ago.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pong was a two-dimensional
tennis game and its creator was a man called Allen Alcorn. In those days, you
could not simply buy a game and bring it home and play. There were places where
these games were installed and they were coin-operated (arcade games). This
meant that you had to put a coin in the machine to play the game!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnZUlvfAAmwbY4EfB3wtQ5r5AlRhBDY2qvcA-zlXLUOjERGBdw9xuHnLsUAjMvk_h664GVW2WAXxQFaKKZncsB61cOvgpFQLHm8rPsQF7qy28rqTf-IFo65tqpQfNxQ9JlWk14P9KAOq4/s1600/pong_cabbig-web.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnZUlvfAAmwbY4EfB3wtQ5r5AlRhBDY2qvcA-zlXLUOjERGBdw9xuHnLsUAjMvk_h664GVW2WAXxQFaKKZncsB61cOvgpFQLHm8rPsQF7qy28rqTf-IFo65tqpQfNxQ9JlWk14P9KAOq4/s320/pong_cabbig-web.jpg" width="255" /></span></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background: #F9F9F9; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In 1972,
Atari (founded by Nolan Bushnell, the godfather of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">gaming</span>) became
the first<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">gaming</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>company to really set the benchmark
for a large-scale<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">gaming</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">community</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: #F9F9F9; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Atari
not only developed their games in-house, they also created a whole new
industry around the “arcade,” and </span><a href="https://www.atari.com/history/1972-1984-0" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">in 1973, retailing at $1,095</span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">, Atari began to sell the first real
electronic video game Pong, and arcade machines began emerging in bars,
bowling alleys and shopping malls around the world.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="left" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 7.5pt 0in;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">In
1975, Atari's Pong is
released with help from Sears Roebuck, which finances the production of 150,000
units. It becomes the hottest selling Christmas present. Sears sells the
product exclusively, with the Sears Tele-Games logo.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: #F9F9F9; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Gunfight</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">,
the first "computer" game is released. It is the first game to use a
microprocessor instead of hardwired solid-state circuits.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: #F9F9F9; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In 1977,
Atari introduces its first cartridge-based home video system called the Video
Computer System which later becomes known as the Atari 2600. It retails for
$249.95.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiocT3uaUrz7ng015jCmCzQJ4TQw7yEC6ZUt-QbdC5Q8oM44gcCOEVdgSuG-Hen1ZwekwP-Q7gnJIPFq0N4YNE_A8hXBxtjzFdrxqycQ9mSlcdwnSrg26FtTiXClUzpsB3vOi3VYTXMZDQ/s1600/10066-atari2600.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="color: black;"><img border="0" height="306" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiocT3uaUrz7ng015jCmCzQJ4TQw7yEC6ZUt-QbdC5Q8oM44gcCOEVdgSuG-Hen1ZwekwP-Q7gnJIPFq0N4YNE_A8hXBxtjzFdrxqycQ9mSlcdwnSrg26FtTiXClUzpsB3vOi3VYTXMZDQ/s400/10066-atari2600.jpg" width="400" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">ATARI 2600</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">When it
was released, the Atari VCS was only designed to play 10 simple challenge
games, such as Pong, Outlaw and Tank. However, the console included an external
ROM slot where game cartridges could be plugged in; the potential was
quickly discovered by programmers around the world, who created games far
outperforming the console’s original designed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
integration of the microprocessor also led to </span><a href="http://www.ign.com/articles/2008/08/26/top-10-best-selling-atari-2600-games" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">the release of Space Invaders for the
Atari VCS in 1980</span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">,
signifying a new era of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">gaming —</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and
sales: Atari 2600 sales shot up to 2 million units in 1980.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">As home
and arcade<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">gaming</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>boomed, so too did the development of
the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">gaming</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">community</span>. The
late 1970s and early 1980s saw the release of hobbyist magazines such as
Creative Computing (1974), Computer and Video Games (1981) and Computer<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">Gaming</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>World (1981). These magazines created
a sense of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="il">community</span>,
and offered a channel by which gamers could engage.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Nintendo,
the company which eventually became a major player in the video gaming industry
for the next three decades, delivered their first series of video game console
from 1977 to 1979. The Color<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="vm-hook"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">TV</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Game
Series were only for sale in Japan. These consoles essentially followed in the
footsteps of Atari and featured Pong-style games.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Once
again, there were a few newcomers to the market but they were met with limited
success. Bally Astrocade came about in 1977 and was celebrated for its superior<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="vm-hook"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">graphic</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>capabilities.
For some reason, it did not last long. Mattel introduced its Intellivision
console in 1979, which actually intimidated Atari 2600 with its exceptional
capabilities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The golden age of video gaming has arrived! With
progressively advanced gaming technology,the 1980s was a period of genre
innovation when the industry began experimenting with non-Pong games like
fighting, platform, adventure and RPG games.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> It is also this era
that we saw the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="vm-hook"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">release</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">of all-time classic games such as Pac-man<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">(1980)</span>, Mario Bros<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">(1983)</span>, The Legend of
Zelda<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">(1986)</span>,
Final Fantasy<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">(1987)</span>, Golden Axe<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">(1988)</span>, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">There was also a major shift from dedicated consoles<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">(with built-in games)</span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to cartridge-based video game systems.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> In the first few years of 1990s,
there is a notable shift in the medium used for storing games from cartridges
to compact discs. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">There
were increased capacities for video gaming, prompting as well a transition of
2D graphics to that of 3D. The first<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="vm-hook"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">CD</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>console
was launched by Philips<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1991)<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>– the
CD-i. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In 1992, NEC
TurboGrafx-16 was upgraded to the TurboGrafx-CD to meet the demands of CD-based
consoles. But again, it lost itself to Sega Genesis/MegaDrive with its latest
add-on, the Sega<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><span class="vm-hook"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">CD</span></span>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; margin-bottom: 15.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 7.5pt;">
<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">The current generation of video game console only has room for three major
competitors: Xbox 360,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span class="vm-hook"><span style="border: none windowtext 1.0pt; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-border-alt: none windowtext 0in; padding: 0in;">Sony</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;"> </span></span><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; font-family: Arial, sans-serif;">Playstation 3 and Nintendo Wii. With full 1080p HD graphics
for both the Xbox 360 and Playstation 3, and Wii’s innovative remote for
sensing 3D movements, it seems that video gaming had indeed came a long, long
way.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-4484095395316467892015-04-03T14:02:00.002-07:002015-04-03T14:02:46.954-07:00TAJ MAHAL<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The Taj Mahal of Agra is one of the Seven Wonders of the
World. This ‘epitome of love’ is a magnificent creation built in the memory of Mughal
Emperor Shah Jahan’s beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXv7atfqUb0qTkaABy3HRJAgCOiJ5uTgJi1InxG-Cl9IdtbybFXBLYn9HIeDa-FAourn2ovQ0Y2Rb0moRRavXCveJky0-lAprXdEfAp7y1chNXFMCi0r9s5xk7AA-68nB7GTa1iDmnwt4/s1600/tajmahal-cover.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXv7atfqUb0qTkaABy3HRJAgCOiJ5uTgJi1InxG-Cl9IdtbybFXBLYn9HIeDa-FAourn2ovQ0Y2Rb0moRRavXCveJky0-lAprXdEfAp7y1chNXFMCi0r9s5xk7AA-68nB7GTa1iDmnwt4/s1600/tajmahal-cover.jpg" height="152" width="400" /></a></div>
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The history of Taj Mahal adds a soul to its magnificence, a true
soul filled with love, loss, remorse, and love again. Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan
fell in love with Mumtaz Mahal at the age of 14. Five years later in the year
1612, they got married.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mumtaz Mahal, an inseparable companion of Shah Jahan, died
in 1631, while giving birth to their 14th child. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The construction of Taj Mahal started in the year 1631. It
took approximately 22 years to build it making use of the services of 22,000
laborers and 1,000 elephants. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Masons, stonecutters, inlayers, carvers, painters,
calligraphers, dome-builders and other artisans got engaged in its construction
from the whole of the empire and also from Central Asia and Iran.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The monument was built entirely out of white marble, which
was brought in from all over India and central Asia.</div>
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<o:p></o:p>The entire Taj complex consists of five major constituents,
namely Darwaza (main gateway), Bageecha (gardens), Masjid (mosque), Naqqar
Khana (rest house) and Rauza (main mausoleum).<o:p></o:p></div>
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The main gateway is situated at
the end of the long watercourse, bordered with Arabic calligraphy of verses
from the Quran, made up of black stone and a domed central chamber.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The original door of the massive sandstone gateway was made
out of solid silver. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The main tomb of Taj Mahal stands on a square platform raised
50 meter above the riverbank and was well-leveled with dirt to reduce seepage
from the river. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The four minarets on each corner of this square are
detached, facing the chamfered angles of the main and are deliberately kept at
137 feet to emphasize the beautiful and spherical dome that itself is 58 feet
in diameter and 81 feet high. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The western side of the main tomb has the mosque and on the
eastern side is the Naqqar Khana (rest/guest house), both made in red
sandstone. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The two structures not only provide an architectural
symmetry, but also make for an aesthetic color contrast. One can only marvel at
the mosque and the rest house as despite being on the opposite ends, the two
are mirror image of each other.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The Islamic style architecture of the garden has a well-defined
meaning which symbolizes spirituality and according to the Holy Quran, the lush
green, well watered is a symbol of Paradise in Islam. The raised pathways
divide each of the four quarters into 16 flowerbeds with around 400 plants in
each bed.<o:p></o:p></div>
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A shadowy burial crypt inside the Taj Mahal houses the tombs
of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan himself, who were buried there after death. </div>
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Above these tombs is the main chamber that has the false tombs and perforated
marble screens used to transmit light into the burial chamber, typical of
mausoleums of the Mughals.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Calligraphic inscriptions of the ninety nine names of Allah
are also found on the sides of actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-76186611733307494062015-04-02T13:03:00.000-07:002015-04-02T13:03:23.505-07:00BLOOD MOON TETRAD<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">A lunar
eclipse occurs when the earth comes in between the sun and the moon. The sun’s
rays are blocked from reaching the moon normally. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">But some
rays of sun curve around the earth, makes the moon to appear red during a total
eclipse. This vivid colour total lunar eclipse is often referred to by NASA as
a Blood Red Moon.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">NASA
confirmed that we have had "blood-red moons" on the first day of
Passover and the first day of Sukkoth on back-to-back years seven times since 1
A.D. When four “blood-red moons” appears in close succession, NASA refers this
as a tetrad.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The
phenomenon of four consecutive blood red moons coinciding with Jewish feast
days has only occurred ten times since 1 AD and only three times since 1492 AD.
The three times are as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">• Tetrad of 1493-1494<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">• Tetrad of 1949-1950<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">• Tetrad of 1967-1968<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The
religious teaching states that when four consecutive blood-red moons fall on
Jewish feast days, a major event affecting the Jewish people will occur in
close proximity to that time.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The Spanish Inquisition took
place in 1492 just before the tetrad of 1493-1494<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In 1492,
the Spanish Inquisition was cruel beyond belief. Firstly Jews were forced to
convert to Christianity then they were severely tortured to test the sincerity
of their conversions. Once they confess, then they were burnt at the stake for not
being true Catholics. </span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The Nation of Israel reborn on
May 14, 1948 just before the tetrad of 1949-1950<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">After
the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD, Jews were driven into
exile. For the next 1,878 years, the Jewish people retained their identity but
were shifted through the nations of the earth, having no permanent homeland. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">After
Hitler’s horrible holocaust during World War II, the Jews were finally granted
a homeland by the nations of the world. On May 14, 1948, the modern state of
Israel was born.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">The City of Jerusalem was
reunited during tetrad of 1967-1968<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">In the
Old Testament God said that He would place His name in Jerusalem. During their
2,000 years of exile, the Jewish people turned their faces toward Jerusalem
three times each day praying for the restoration of Jerusalem and the
rebuilding of their temple in Jerusalem. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">On June
7, 1967 the Jordanian attacked Israel and west Jerusalem. Israel
counter-attacked thrown Jordan out of east Jerusalem and of Judea-Samaria, and
back into its own land across the Jordan River. Jerusalem was undivided and
under Jewish control for the first time after the destruction of Jerusalem by
the Romans in 70 AD.<b><u><o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy4nbZ0lQuFTC77tg8DXN7VOywWzxSU33LqeuGjIsG5w8Fqx2yR-IY2FgIWbBGVa4140BVaQq0SQekmviRQoAy_6FDGbA5jUQ2E3TwIiNCRAQPaJLrTJSSAZiTtec9-O5von9FHadYXdk/s1600/BloodRed+Moon.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy4nbZ0lQuFTC77tg8DXN7VOywWzxSU33LqeuGjIsG5w8Fqx2yR-IY2FgIWbBGVa4140BVaQq0SQekmviRQoAy_6FDGbA5jUQ2E3TwIiNCRAQPaJLrTJSSAZiTtec9-O5von9FHadYXdk/s1600/BloodRed+Moon.jpg" height="250" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Four
blood moons on Jewish feast days are getting ready to appear for the fourth
time during 2014-2015. According to NASA, they will occur on:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">• April 15, 2014—Passover<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">• October 8, 2014—Feast of Tabernacles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">• April 4, 2015—Passover<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">• September 28, 2015—Feast of
Tabernacles<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Some prophecy
teachers are declaring that this tetrad is signalling towards something ready
to happen, which will change the world forever. Let us see what will happen in
this Tetrad. Hope for something good…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-88875093110289685262015-03-28T13:22:00.000-07:002015-03-28T13:22:14.849-07:00COMPUTER PRINTER<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1938 <i>Xerography</i>,
a dry printing process was invented by the American inventor Chester Carlson. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The word ‘<i>Xerography</i>’
comes from the Greek word which means ‘<i>dry
writing</i>’. It was the foundation technology for copiers and laser printers.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Carlson applied for patent in 1939 and in 1942 the patent
was granted to him. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH6wEvWcfzvn7n89k8Hdam3SbYzyUQg25zRjhcNTJUKR8EGNnZVVKgiwReDgWsDIiH2KidizUC0SnF-bYZOMLvim-PYUh01KCJV2UTdnwWRNfsKiChFvJb9DlP80Hi0B_AxG6ruX_Xkis/s1600/chester-with-early-printer.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH6wEvWcfzvn7n89k8Hdam3SbYzyUQg25zRjhcNTJUKR8EGNnZVVKgiwReDgWsDIiH2KidizUC0SnF-bYZOMLvim-PYUh01KCJV2UTdnwWRNfsKiChFvJb9DlP80Hi0B_AxG6ruX_Xkis/s1600/chester-with-early-printer.jpg" height="240" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But he was not successful to catch the interest of companies
towards his invention. Later on, Carlson succeeded to negotiate commercial
rights of his invention to Haloid Company in 1947.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This was the biggest deal of the life both for Carlson and
for the company Haloid, which became one of biggest companies in the world due
to this invention. Later on this company was renamed as ‘Xerox’.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1967 a young researcher in Xerox's Webster Research
Center in Rochester, Gary K. Starkweather was sitting in his lab thinking instead
of copying someone else's original, if we use a computer to generate the
original and here only the idea of the laser printer was born.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At that time, the lasers were expensive devices, but
convinced that the cost of lasers would drop over time and also there was a
market for laser printing technology, Starkweather stuck to his guns. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
His ideas were not meeting the requirements from Xerox
management. Hewas told to stop working on the laser printer project. But he
couldn't. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
He just go through with his idea ignoring all ifs and but.
He convinced people to get different parts for building it. The prototype was
ready in 1969. It was built by modifying an existing xerographic copier. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Starkweather disabled the imaging system and created a
spinning drum with 8 mirrored sides, with a laser focused on the drum. Light
from the laser would bounce off the spinning drum, sweeping across the page as
it moved through the copier. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSJCQ_4nAG_JHPk6V89hnab4OJrK6wyiupTzdJwB8ECNLYFntlvTPY1bO2XUmHKROpjnoYZTOFHzTNmI67zHWY5CRMT6AJuapWwtYou_POHdM-7lxvoXcLQTz5qe1YL75aQ8KhGX0u-1M/s1600/125_1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSJCQ_4nAG_JHPk6V89hnab4OJrK6wyiupTzdJwB8ECNLYFntlvTPY1bO2XUmHKROpjnoYZTOFHzTNmI67zHWY5CRMT6AJuapWwtYou_POHdM-7lxvoXcLQTz5qe1YL75aQ8KhGX0u-1M/s1600/125_1.jpg" height="320" width="243" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The hardware was completed in just two weeks, but the
computer interfacing and software took almost 3 months to get completed.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Printers were now a pillar of the company's growth strategy.
Starkweather's drive to create the laser printer eventually transformed a small
copier company into one of the world's imaging powerhouses, and revolutionized
the computer printing industry.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When Xerox build the Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in
California in 1970, Starkweather came for salvation. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Out of hostile territory, he was finally given the freedom to conduct
his research without fear of retribution. Starkweather went to work on building
the laser printer. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1971, just nine months after joining PARC, Starkweather
completed the first working laser printer.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
He named it as ‘SLOT’, an acronym for <i>Scanned Laser Output Terminal</i>. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The digital control system and character generator for the
printer were developed by Butler Lampson and Ronald Rider in 1972.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The combined efforts
resulted in a printer named EARS (Ethernet, Alto, Research character generator,
Scanned laser output terminal).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The EARS printer was
used with the Alto computer system network and subsequently became the Xerox
9700 laser printing system.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Xerox 9700 was introduced in 1977, it was the industry's
first commercial laser printer. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It was a wild success, few customers would produce the
200000 to 300000 prints per month needed for the unit to be profitable.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Starkweather shifted his research onto personal laser
printers, and again worked against Xerox. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Xerox was a company that liked large, fast laser printers.
They saw departmental units as the profit center for laser printer technology.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Xerox failed to realize that the profit wasn't in the
printer but in the ink toner and the paper. As a result, the company was beaten
up by Hewlett-Packard, which introduced the first personal laser printer in
1980.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Xerox always encouraged new ideas but never really liked to
pursue them for very long. Things like Postscript, the laser printer, the
personal computer, the bitmapped screen, the iconic interface, Ethernet, packet
switching, all of this came out of PARC. And none of it, ended up as a product
of Xerox.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1985, Office laser printers become available with high
quality text and graphics. One of them is the Apple LaserWriter, a PostScript
laser printer.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
HP LaserJet is
introduced around the same time and uses the same Canon engine as the
LaserWriter.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1987 Starkweather however left the company after 24 years
of service. Following a 10-year stint at Apple Computer, Starkweather joined
Microsoft Research in 1997. These days, his main area of research is display
technology.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
During mid-1990s, Xerox Majestik offers comparable image
quality and colour to Canon CLC range and the color laser printing market
becomes competitive in the market.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-54874877571804294462015-03-17T12:52:00.001-07:002015-03-17T12:52:39.492-07:00CAPACITOR<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
A capacitor is a device for temporarily storing electric
charge. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In October 1745, Ewald Georg Von Kleist of Pomerania in
Germany found that charge could be stored by connecting a generator by a wire
to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Von Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors and the
jar as a dielectric. Von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a
spark even after removing the generator. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ6PoXsrUNXQRhcNQ92kXtw3Zue8MCb-wRuCv91vY7VqvLM6wFvo4OYgtzLLPj8XzxeiC0ga-Svfonk3Nnc4h-y-_NYkdn9ShNuVl_O1OvZuqr3EAmkGXJ-ZInJuxMyjjLo7hyphenhyphenbvfIZQ0/s1600/Leidne_Jar_Woodcut.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ6PoXsrUNXQRhcNQ92kXtw3Zue8MCb-wRuCv91vY7VqvLM6wFvo4OYgtzLLPj8XzxeiC0ga-Svfonk3Nnc4h-y-_NYkdn9ShNuVl_O1OvZuqr3EAmkGXJ-ZInJuxMyjjLo7hyphenhyphenbvfIZQ0/s1600/Leidne_Jar_Woodcut.JPG" height="266" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In a letter describing the experiment, he said "I would
not take a second shock for the kingdom of France." <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1746, the Leyden jar was invented by Pieter van
Musschenbroek at the University of Leyden in Holland. It was a glass jar
wrapped inside and out by a thin metal foil. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The two layers of electrically conducting material that is
metal foil here were separated by layers of a non-conducting material that was glass
in the case of the Leyden jar, but it can also be wax, mica, oil, paper,
tantalum, plastic, ceramic material, or even air.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbiXvndZchM1ItLOqvWF0Rrw3h-RONk_LKfV9fSyNgWQ30HednaWpqSbCtjk-dACiPlVF-4UlHU0nvNdVI30RDao38HkSsny-E3hSVkcbc2gjeSLNTVfjp_om110J3bVCsfOYmVAiLAR0/s1600/Leyden-Jar.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbiXvndZchM1ItLOqvWF0Rrw3h-RONk_LKfV9fSyNgWQ30HednaWpqSbCtjk-dACiPlVF-4UlHU0nvNdVI30RDao38HkSsny-E3hSVkcbc2gjeSLNTVfjp_om110J3bVCsfOYmVAiLAR0/s1600/Leyden-Jar.jpg" height="400" width="305" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The outer foil was connected to the ground, and the inner
foil was connected to a source of electricity such as an electrostatic
generator. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The plates will become charged, one positively and one
negatively. If the externally applied voltage is then removed, the plates of
the capacitor remain charged, and the presence of the electric charge induces
an electrical potential between the plates.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Daniel Gralath was
the first scientist to combine several Leyden jars in parallel into a
"battery" to increase the charge storage capacity.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Benjamin Franklin checked the Leyden jar, and proved that
the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as it was assumed. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
He used a Leyden jar to store electricity from lightning in
his famous kite flying experiment in 1752. By doing so he proved that lightning
was really electricity.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
He deviced the idea of a parallel or flat plate capacitor
& developed the first flat plate capacitor called the Franklin Square.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Leyden jars began to be made by coating the inside and
outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at the mouth to prevent arcing
between the foils. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The earliest unit of capacitance was the 'jar', equivalent
to about 1 Nano farad.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Years later, Michael Faraday experimented and made the first
practically viable capacitor. Faraday’s pioneering role in capacitor technology
has been honoured by naming the SI unit of Capacitance as ‘Farad’.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Leyden jar or flat glass plate construction was used until
about 1900.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The invention of wireless (radio) created a demand for
standard capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required
capacitors with lower inductance. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg711oOWvCHo5XXGYqFZrzqyuWZo5FXWZwVP8-ZbVVcwNBei5um1pz5wy_HuMu_JqvZuO-ccl3MKt9iNDN2gQrhliR2XqupwP2Fp_f3TaPPNHbSqHVp0FL-qvCKS8iMy3dhfPiHpX4XZd0/s1600/images.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg711oOWvCHo5XXGYqFZrzqyuWZo5FXWZwVP8-ZbVVcwNBei5um1pz5wy_HuMu_JqvZuO-ccl3MKt9iNDN2gQrhliR2XqupwP2Fp_f3TaPPNHbSqHVp0FL-qvCKS8iMy3dhfPiHpX4XZd0/s1600/images.jpg" height="299" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A flexible dielectric sheet such as oiled paper sandwiched
between sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a small package were
constructed.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Early capacitors were also known as condensers, this term is
still used occasionally now. <o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
It was coined by Alessandro Volta in 1782.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It was derived
from the Italian word “<i>condensatore</i>”,
with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric
charge than a normal isolated conductor. <o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-49295375820406703942015-03-16T13:01:00.004-07:002015-03-16T13:01:44.179-07:00MOUSE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
In Stanford Research Institute, scientists had to use pre-existing
devices in order to interact with the computer including the light pen,
joysticks and the trackball.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first trackball consisted of a Canadian bowling ball
that was supported by air bearings. It was invented by Tom Cranston and Fred
Longstaff in 1952. The device was created for the Royal Canadian Navy. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first light pen was invented by Ben Gurley in 1959.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1961, Douglas Engelbart was attending a computer graphics
conference at Stanford Research Institute. He was disturbed with the computer
graphics pointing devices available at that time. The basic idea for the
computer mouse came to his mind there itself.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-4wQuW9F8ChWUsYsOobTuwjTQCjj-iMgLLdhVCVULbP8P9HhnHbOQ4QX_3hI3jkei5j7ZU2CeWHBdRu_zgdBI7Oj_5ndPz8ogINaxCsRSz3FusOaTIyi58EKIPU9tG8W675as3EZI2aw/s1600/01_first_mouse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-4wQuW9F8ChWUsYsOobTuwjTQCjj-iMgLLdhVCVULbP8P9HhnHbOQ4QX_3hI3jkei5j7ZU2CeWHBdRu_zgdBI7Oj_5ndPz8ogINaxCsRSz3FusOaTIyi58EKIPU9tG8W675as3EZI2aw/s1600/01_first_mouse.jpg" height="213" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1964, the first prototype of computer mouse was made to be
used with a graphical user interface (GUI), 'windows' of the computer. The primitive
mouse had the cord in front, but they quickly connected it to the back end for
a smooth motion.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In early 1967, Engelbart and Bill English published a paper
having a discussion on a “knee-control” device that appeared challenging. That
device was based on Engelbart's observation that the human foot was a good
sensitive controller of the gas pedal in cars. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
They discovered that the knee
offered even better control at little movements in all directions. In tests, it
outperformed the mouse by a small margin.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After Engelbart got the idea, he hired Bill English who had
been working in another lab at SRI, to make the hardware design of the mouse.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It was a simple mechanical device with two perpendicularly
mounted discs on the bottom. The user could tilt the mouse to draw perfectly
straight horizontal or vertical lines. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1967, Engelbart applied for a patent and received it as
an assignor of SRI for the wooden shell with two metal wheels.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYj0V83HvNhN4bcSVfjAnqmq0szAMgBCkviAo07_SCN5CaIYV17nRouWJ67S5l7aTSq_h1Da6SF23hCc0JkT2Wxd2dTfqwCpqR858VBOJ0V6x-LhdJgmw4UsB24PTRH66JrEmoWxcOCbA/s1600/300px-Apple_Macintosh_Plus_mouse.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYj0V83HvNhN4bcSVfjAnqmq0szAMgBCkviAo07_SCN5CaIYV17nRouWJ67S5l7aTSq_h1Da6SF23hCc0JkT2Wxd2dTfqwCpqR858VBOJ0V6x-LhdJgmw4UsB24PTRH66JrEmoWxcOCbA/s1600/300px-Apple_Macintosh_Plus_mouse.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mouse was originally referred to as a "X-Y Position
Indicator for a Display System." This mouse was first attached with the
Xerox Alto computer system in 1973. But it was not so successful.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first widely used mouse was found on the Apple Lisa
computer. Today, mouse is found and used on every computer.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The first cordless mouse was shipped in September, 1984,
with the Metaphor computer of David Liddle and Donald Massaro, former Xerox
PARC engineers. The computer also had a cordless keyboard and function keypad. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The cordless mouse was built for Metaphor by Logitech and
used infra-red (IR) signals to transmit mouse data to the computer. </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfDDEkozo0vVusT-7KuVVlnPb2RKZdQdyDWSKSvGpWOCC9zjxkwukNhRxus0ikaIOSrpw0bqugSzB2FQt_E24NVoem7EFxKFexczZkZ0oaTenWmNBhLHyD7D8MctuisW30aORkg1tZH04/s1600/wireless-.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjfDDEkozo0vVusT-7KuVVlnPb2RKZdQdyDWSKSvGpWOCC9zjxkwukNhRxus0ikaIOSrpw0bqugSzB2FQt_E24NVoem7EFxKFexczZkZ0oaTenWmNBhLHyD7D8MctuisW30aORkg1tZH04/s1600/wireless-.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The problem
with IR technology using devices was that they need a clear line of sight
between the mouse and the computer's receiver which was too difficult. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
This problem was solved by replacing IR with radio frequency
(RF) communications.<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-1497964276534051042015-03-10T13:27:00.000-07:002015-03-10T13:27:22.209-07:00MATCH BOX<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
The book Records of the Unworldly and the Strange, by Tao
Gu, China in 950 AD gives the earliest descriptions of a match:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“<i>If there occurs an
emergency at night it may take some time to make a light to light a lamp. But
an ingenious man devised the system of impregnating little sticks of pinewood
with sulphur and storing them ready for use. At the slightest touch of fire they
burst into flame. This marvellous thing was earlier called a “light-bringing
slave”, but afterwards when it became an article of commerce its name was
changed to ‘fire inch-stick’</i>.”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpP8pLmg2IQ6DFAob_I31q8QXnAXDTCxwu5r0Kb3m77PG1CY1AiaoXO-5bIz2T6FftSuYYxrWW0rzmHjb8w-CZqzWQTkuyz7DsjOZu4XtiqZZY0VRUEK7OcxjgriDcDVQ7xmLb1zta2X0/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpP8pLmg2IQ6DFAob_I31q8QXnAXDTCxwu5r0Kb3m77PG1CY1AiaoXO-5bIz2T6FftSuYYxrWW0rzmHjb8w-CZqzWQTkuyz7DsjOZu4XtiqZZY0VRUEK7OcxjgriDcDVQ7xmLb1zta2X0/s1600/1.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1669, Hennig Brandt in Hamburg was experimenting to
transform an olio of base metals into gold, but accidentally produced the
element phosphorous. He did not make use of his discovery.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1680, Robert Boyle, a British physicist coated coarse
paper in phosphorous, and a splinter of wood in sulphur. When the wood was passed
through the folded paper, it burst into flames. Due to the limited amount of
phosphorous, this invention was little more than expensive. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1817, “the Ethereal Match” was invented by a French
chemist in which a piece of paper coated with a compound of phosphorous got
ignited when exposed to air. The paper was vacuum-sealed in a glass tube called
the “match,” and whenever required it was ignited by smashing the tube.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTzwqHda41PBGvsqsXq6J_JZeWqtllXsErAomlDC1m8HuIFM2SownFRsM9JqP-u2MxAuqPlOhUcmTtv3Elefh8XPRO4auiy2dsjv1mXthNV2WVKW9BSQAvk_3jSBSZQZYNiON7OIzeqxc/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjTzwqHda41PBGvsqsXq6J_JZeWqtllXsErAomlDC1m8HuIFM2SownFRsM9JqP-u2MxAuqPlOhUcmTtv3Elefh8XPRO4auiy2dsjv1mXthNV2WVKW9BSQAvk_3jSBSZQZYNiON7OIzeqxc/s1600/2.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1826, John Walker, an apothecary in Stockton-On-Tees, was
conducting an experiment in his laboratory. He stirred a mixture of antimony sulphide,
potassium chlorate, gum and starch with a wooden stick, and subsequently
scraped the stick on the stone floor of the lab to remove a glob of the
solution dried on the end of it. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When the stick burst into flames, Walker felt it very
interesting and made several of the sticks. He demonstrated it again with
Samuel Jones in London.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Samuel Jones realized the commercial potential of this
sudden invention and set up a match business in London, and cleverly named his
product “Lucifer’s”. Lucifers became
popular and following their introduction in London, tobacco smoking of all
kinds greatly increased.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1831, Charles Sauria of France developed a match that
used white phosphorus. These matches were strike-anywhere matches. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
They were much easier to ignite and caused many
unintentional fires. Also White phosphorus proved to be highly toxic. Workers
in match plants inhaled white phosphorus fumes and hence suffered from a
horrible degeneration of the jawbones known as "phossy jaw." <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Inspite of this health hazard, white phosphorus continued to
be used in strike-anywhere matches until the early 1900s, when government
action in the United States and Europe forced manufacturers to switch to a
nontoxic chemical.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A non-poisonous match using red phosphorous was invented in
the mid-1800s; however it was more expensive to produce. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After agitation and worker actions like the London Match
girl’s Strike in 1888, Government pass legislation against the use of white
phosphorous, which forced match manufacturers to reform their dangerous
product.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1844, Gustaf Pasch of Sweden placed some of the match's
combustion ingredients on a separate striking surface, rather than adding them
all into the match head, as an extra precaution against accidental ignition. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1855, J. E. Lundstrom of Sweden introduced safety matches
coupling the idea of Gustaf Pasch with the discovery of less-reactive, nontoxic
red phosphorus. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Although safety matches posed less of a hazard, but still
many people preferred to use strike-anywhere matches, and both types continued
to be used today.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1896, a brewing company ordered more than fifty thousand
matchbooks to advertise a new product on it and the ubiquitous practice of
matchbook advertising was born.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the 1940’s the
psychological warfare branch of the U.S. government distributed thousands of
matchbooks containing anti-Nazi slogans to occupied countries, and the French
Resistance produced matchbooks containing instructions on how to derail Nazi
trains printed on the inside cover.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thirty thousand match heads will produce a 10-15 foot column
of flame. A satchel of sixty thousand match heads has enough firepower to
propel a 6 pound bowling ball 1500 feet.<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-77129707268187950062015-03-07T12:38:00.002-08:002015-03-07T12:38:46.484-08:00BARBIE DOLL<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1938, Ruth married Elliot Handler.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1945, Mattel Co. was founded by Harold Matson, Elliot
Handler and Ruth Handler to make picture frames. But in 1946, Matson sold his
interest to the Handlers. Mattel started making and selling doll house
furniture.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
During early 1950s, Handler observed that her young
daughter, Barbara, and her girlfriends enjoyed playing with adult female dolls
as compared to baby dolls.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYR7dfItFw2EHYKNfQv0Z8zL4xU6zG5_KTqDtZ1a646F_h7E2FjGC6XS6iJGtm3RiBPeBj8FA_NxXO7we8C40oBLiYKZIVOt22p1v7CfufX0_qFY1XyZK3c-onNZssyw14JvV4BokOy7s/s1600/RuthHandlerHusbandandBarbie.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYR7dfItFw2EHYKNfQv0Z8zL4xU6zG5_KTqDtZ1a646F_h7E2FjGC6XS6iJGtm3RiBPeBj8FA_NxXO7we8C40oBLiYKZIVOt22p1v7CfufX0_qFY1XyZK3c-onNZssyw14JvV4BokOy7s/s1600/RuthHandlerHusbandandBarbie.jpg" height="180" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Handler returned from a trip to Europe with introducing "Lilli"
doll which was modelled after a cartoon character in a German comic strip and in
a daily newspaper called the Bild-Zeitung. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This character was known for her large breasts and sexy
clothing, was originally created for adult entertainment as a symbol of sex and
pornography for the men of Germany.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ruth Handler encountered the Lilli doll on her vacation in
Switzerland and now the toy company that she and her husband founded i.e.
Mattel had started turning a profit.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While she watched her daughter, Barbara playing with adult dolls,
Ruth Handler formulated the idea of creating an affordable adult doll for
little girls. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbOyDAASDPQFY57ifnLFzbjPmG-jer6yJAtcXgKrGg9NughsNgwo6hY3BL48Qwb2J5vljlcW_22WBLPA84mlfitAqYaVi-bWffjqwbXjtXM2DCx4jZ29TKvJ1zsQOtDCCN-_VjSplWuuY/s1600/fashion-fairytale-.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbOyDAASDPQFY57ifnLFzbjPmG-jer6yJAtcXgKrGg9NughsNgwo6hY3BL48Qwb2J5vljlcW_22WBLPA84mlfitAqYaVi-bWffjqwbXjtXM2DCx4jZ29TKvJ1zsQOtDCCN-_VjSplWuuY/s1600/fashion-fairytale-.jpg" height="320" width="283" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Jack Ryan, executive of Mattel, purchased the rights for
Lilli and negotiates with a company of Tokyo to create an inexpensive doll like
Lilli for little girls. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
American male designers challenged Handler that it would be
impossible to make a doll with stylish clothing and accessories with an
affordable price. But Handler accepted this challenge and created a new doll with
softer look by the "rotation-moulding" process and named it “Barbie”
as her daughter’s name.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Finally in 1958, Barbie was born with 11 1/2 inches height
and weight <st1:metricconverter productid="11 ounces" w:st="on">11 ounces</st1:metricconverter>.
She debuted as a teenage model in a black and white striped swimsuit along with
sunglasses, high-heeled shoes, and gold-colour hoop earrings. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqNLpCofpWs1pjzFRHc6OjvCLpO1FClb4P5qN_-9FvOj1qbKaVrIh0xzMxPdmhNiyWV2X2kYMvfclUylNCU6-C40Ld4truwy7npL4-_4IBEn0GsKZLlpeNUjY-AxZDSCr2oQ3Am-QWsOU/s1600/barbiedoll+1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqNLpCofpWs1pjzFRHc6OjvCLpO1FClb4P5qN_-9FvOj1qbKaVrIh0xzMxPdmhNiyWV2X2kYMvfclUylNCU6-C40Ld4truwy7npL4-_4IBEn0GsKZLlpeNUjY-AxZDSCr2oQ3Am-QWsOU/s1600/barbiedoll+1.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Her body was shaped with movable head, arms, and legs.
Barbie was the first doll in America with an adult body.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Barbie was used as a "teaching tool for
femininity". As the ideal western woman with long legs and arms, a small
waist, and high round chest, Barbie represented every little girl's dream of
the perfect mature body.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Barbie was accompanied with an original box and a fashion
booklet. The box is covered in haute-couture style drawings representing Barbie
a very fashionable figure. The cover of the booklet is of Barbie's profile.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Her
side-ways glancing look was set against a pink background creating an air of
"remarkable sophistication". <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Barbie has a pleasant attitude toward cleanliness. Barbie is
seen in a Bar-B-Q outfit showing the homemaking skills required for being a
good wife.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Barbie also wore undergarments that symbolized adulthood.
She had a girdle, which was a necessary garment to encourage good posture in
women. Barbie's first wardrobe also included two straps-less bras, one half-slip,
and one floral petticoat. All private and embarrassing questions about growing
up could be answered by dressing Barbie.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another popular outfit of the first Barbie was the wedding
dress. She also owned clothing for recreational activities such as playing
tennis and dancing ballet. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Fashion of the 1950's was up-to-date in Barbie's wardrobes. Latest
fabric innovations such as nylon tricot, nylon tulle, sheer nylon, and nylon
net were used as materials for Barbie's clothing. As women were purchasing tights, Barbie was
given her first pair in 1961 to keep up with current feminine trends.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mattel wanted to keep Barbie's image too perfect so they
decided to create a more personal side of Barbie. Society's emphasis was on a family,
therefore in the 1960's Barbie's parents were identified as Robert and
Margareth Roberts from Willows, Wisconsin. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Along with parents, Mattel developed a boyfriend and female
friend for Barbie. Ken, named after the Handler's son, was introduced as Barbie’s
boyfriend in 1961 and Midge, Barbie's freckle faced friend, debuted in 1963.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuV_K-V6faP4doiEOH8gf3cNwFYY8ZcZV3QXN2NHBcwelh9dXIduwaN5BX4NWnSVJvqNbY5JRFv3J5CAkOqBHDXuO-lSOKZfv-nfxXQx84XMvvTyw923q2SzMKYE_tx71sMX7dj5TIa8g/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuV_K-V6faP4doiEOH8gf3cNwFYY8ZcZV3QXN2NHBcwelh9dXIduwaN5BX4NWnSVJvqNbY5JRFv3J5CAkOqBHDXuO-lSOKZfv-nfxXQx84XMvvTyw923q2SzMKYE_tx71sMX7dj5TIa8g/s1600/1.jpg" height="320" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ken also came with teenage male essentials, such as a letter
sweater, tuxedo, and a grey flannel suit. They believed that young girls did
not need to know some realities of adulthood; therefore Ken was born with
permanent underwear.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Midge was less glamorous and less intimidating. She had
Barbie's body but a wider, friendly face covered in freckles. Her look was
intended to be "thoughtful".<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Barbie has been able to maintain her status as "the
most popular fashion doll ever created". The talented staff at Mattel
researches societal trends to keep Barbie current.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
She has now appeared as a doctor, astronaut, businesswoman,
police officer, UNICEF volunteer, and athlete. Over the years, Barbie had achieved the title of the most popular fashion doll ever since created.<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-49172660033428594822015-03-04T11:53:00.000-08:002015-03-04T11:53:00.434-08:00LASER<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The word ‘LASER’
stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation".
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnvN1lrKi8M8BwbVErIb6650JjIQzjbcAQX4ysOgj12lVDZKUMHEGCICj5u6tDSiw3OsCcnl1aDR9afFe3t3kRnHa1wTFDIGwu9BxGtuYJkfBNBBa-UjsZoT_FgATSgxLO5OhSuZUoqkE/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnvN1lrKi8M8BwbVErIb6650JjIQzjbcAQX4ysOgj12lVDZKUMHEGCICj5u6tDSiw3OsCcnl1aDR9afFe3t3kRnHa1wTFDIGwu9BxGtuYJkfBNBBa-UjsZoT_FgATSgxLO5OhSuZUoqkE/s1600/1.jpg" height="265" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1917,</span>
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Albert Einstein first explained
the theory of stimulated emission, which became the basis of Laser. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">When a
photon interacts with an excited molecule or atom, it causes the emission of a
second photon having the same frequency, phase, polarization and direction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During late
1940s or 50s, scientists and engineers work hard to realize a practical device working
on the principle of stimulated emission<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1954, a
predecessor of the laser, called the MASER was independently developed at
Columbia University by Charles Townes and Jim Gordon and in Russia by Nicolay
Basov and Alexsandr Prokhorov. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">MASER stands
for "Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation",<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimZWBA99cinOrA8SS8OW8oJZdHemVCBf10_nKCUK8Gp1RlhciJnS-AVaqNb7h0ofxVBItXPKh4OLS-0NQTBAcKOEg2w53zRfGLpDB7uX9D45msvoQ74w6CvwWp9YyQ38ohtgs9HkTzP2U/s1600/laser.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEimZWBA99cinOrA8SS8OW8oJZdHemVCBf10_nKCUK8Gp1RlhciJnS-AVaqNb7h0ofxVBItXPKh4OLS-0NQTBAcKOEg2w53zRfGLpDB7uX9D45msvoQ74w6CvwWp9YyQ38ohtgs9HkTzP2U/s1600/laser.jpg" height="225" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">The ammonia
masers were two-energy-level gaseous systems that could continuously retain a
population inversion and oscillation. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Nicolaas
Bloembergen proposed a three-level solid state maser at Harvard in 1956. It
was demonstrated by researchers
at Bell Labs that same year.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">After the
masers, Arthur Schawlow and Charles Townes thought to make infrared or visible
light masers. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1957
Schawlow and Townes developed an optical cavity by placing two highly
reflecting mirrors parallel to each other, and positioned the amplifying medium
in between the cavity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1960,
Maiman realized first working LASER based on Ruby at Hughes Research
Laboratories.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBXloK1piRUMhf548ahPtc7zRCboxIERPzl9yjmiLWFWBx2y-elRt_LWMGJTqH3kftMgacA-cKx35JmQF3pkdtES1zBSMPZHZhCRjVvcZplfaok2gGmmOLIClf0X7XxjcTxfnf0Wr4CTE/s1600/maiman_theodore_f4_big.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBXloK1piRUMhf548ahPtc7zRCboxIERPzl9yjmiLWFWBx2y-elRt_LWMGJTqH3kftMgacA-cKx35JmQF3pkdtES1zBSMPZHZhCRjVvcZplfaok2gGmmOLIClf0X7XxjcTxfnf0Wr4CTE/s1600/maiman_theodore_f4_big.jpg" height="320" width="248" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1961, Javan,
Bennet, and Herriot invented first gas laser using Helium- Neon gases called as
He-Ne laser at Bell Laboratories.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1962,
Johnson, Boyd, Nassau and Sodden developed continuous wave solid-state laser.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During 1964,
Geusic, Markos and Van Uiteit together led to the development of first working
Nd:YAG LASER at Bell Labs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">CO2 LASER
was invented by Patel during 1964 at Bell Labs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Argon Ion
LASER was developed by Bridges in 1964 at Hughes Labs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1965, Pimentel
and Kasper made first chemical LASER at University of California, Berkley.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1965, Wave
propagation in nonlinear media was observed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">First metal
vapor LASER i.e. Zn-Cd Laser was developed at University of Utah by Silfvast, Fowles
and Hopkins in 1966.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1966, first
Dye Laser action was demonstrated by Sorokin and Lankard at IBM Labs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">In 1970, First
Excimer LASER based on Xenon (Xe) only was developed by Nikolai Basov's Group at
Lebedev Labs, Moscow. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">It was in
1980 that Geoffrey Pert's Group gave first report of X-ray lasing action at Hull
University, UK.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">During 1984,
Dennis Matthew's Group demonstrated "laboratory" X-ray laser from
Lawrence Livermore Labs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-2028920528361021532015-03-02T12:04:00.000-08:002015-03-02T12:04:11.651-08:00PARACHUTE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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It is believed that the concept of parachute was firstly
given by Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519). The description of a parachute concept
is found in da Vinci's notebooks along with a sketch.<br /><br />Although da Vinci never made the device but his sketch consisted
of a cloth material pulled tightly over a rigid pyramidal structure.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQF8edgWPiGVMeBkqJHmcMHvb6SOwRzXAxoqMCNXbmxJsFGcZMe0R7Uv6ZrMeyF-kySOyZATby72LUlQAv1HTX8pCCvIymbNwhwSmqkB2tSi5y9EylvoGKBOE2B49HBLnmemUL4eXqoMk/s1600/leonardo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQF8edgWPiGVMeBkqJHmcMHvb6SOwRzXAxoqMCNXbmxJsFGcZMe0R7Uv6ZrMeyF-kySOyZATby72LUlQAv1HTX8pCCvIymbNwhwSmqkB2tSi5y9EylvoGKBOE2B49HBLnmemUL4eXqoMk/s1600/leonardo.jpg" /></a></div>
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<br /><br />He is credited for the concept of lowering man to the ground
safely using a maximum drag decelerator.<br />Croatian Faust Vrancic constructed a device based on Da
Vinci's drawing and jumped from a Venice tower in 1617.<br /><br />Faust Vrancic published Machinae Novae magazine in which he
described in text and in picture form fifty-six advanced technical
constructions, including Vrancic's parachute called the Homo Volans.<br /><br />In 1783, Sebastian Lenormand jumped from a tower using a
14-foot diameter parachute. The first emergency use of a parachute was made by
Jean Pierre Blanchard in 1785 after the hot air balloon exploded in which he
was present.<br /><br />Blanchard also worked on a foldable silk parachute, before
then all parachutes were constructed with a rigid frame so cannot be folded.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUJgAbkiyMiTF7FepQILLR3vZKkWRO3zhD68xp6DOOSw1bVqFAWc-Ql2Af8Yh5cHKMv7OR_VtSMdM68q-y9MxIBSbM0OzJrXAJQ-TITCxOHTFbfU7Uya5J42JYu5oIiFI2wrxymaMdFzg/s1600/blanchard.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiUJgAbkiyMiTF7FepQILLR3vZKkWRO3zhD68xp6DOOSw1bVqFAWc-Ql2Af8Yh5cHKMv7OR_VtSMdM68q-y9MxIBSbM0OzJrXAJQ-TITCxOHTFbfU7Uya5J42JYu5oIiFI2wrxymaMdFzg/s1600/blanchard.png" height="309" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /><br />On October 22, 1797, Andrew Garnerin become the first person
to jump from hot air ballons as high as 8,000 feet in the air with a parachute
without a rigid frame.<br /><br /> As the parachute was
coming down, severe oscillations were induced in the canopy. So he designed the
first air vent in a parachute to reduce oscillations as suggested by Lalandes.<br /><br />In 1890, Paul Letteman and Kathchen Paulus invented the
method of folding or packing the parachute in a knapsak to be worn on the back
before its release.<br /><br />Kathchen Paulus was also behind the invention of the
intentional breakaway, which is when one small parachute opens first and pulls
open the main parachute.<br /><br />The development of modern parachutes deployed at high speeds
and high altitudes started in the 1930's. Knacke and Madelung developed the
ribbon parachute in Germany for Ring sail parachute decelerating heavy high
speed payloads.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgun4Yr8x9xWCWpWA_O0GZaiZ7rPITfMdVi2bySjNI-6BrfxLB-yOPtWIRjptrg8v5XlaPumiTFGYaNCDweY5llTND638EoDW6Pn0VrfatnL1C6Ap2yeFL9QJ17YhgjT2OhJFP26L0ik3I/s1600/parasejling1_lesnaya_gavan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgun4Yr8x9xWCWpWA_O0GZaiZ7rPITfMdVi2bySjNI-6BrfxLB-yOPtWIRjptrg8v5XlaPumiTFGYaNCDweY5llTND638EoDW6Pn0VrfatnL1C6Ap2yeFL9QJ17YhgjT2OhJFP26L0ik3I/s1600/parasejling1_lesnaya_gavan.jpg" height="240" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /><br />After World War II, Knacke invented the ring slot parachute which
is used for moderate subsonic speeds. This parachute is used primarily for
cargo delivery and aircraft deceleration.<br /><br />By the late 1970's the parawing was replaced by the
parafoil, invented in the middle 1960's by Domina Jalbert, a kite maker.<br /><br />The parafoil or ram-air parachute is a deformable airfoil
that maintains its shape by trapping air between two rectangle shaped
membranes, sewn together at the trailing edge and sides, but open at the
leading edge.<br /><br />Several ribs are sewn to the inside of the upper and lower surfaces,
maintaining an airfoil cross section in the spanwise direction.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-74039901421212201772015-03-01T11:35:00.001-08:002015-03-01T11:35:33.858-08:00MOBILE PHONES<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Mobile phones have become an indispencible part
of our lives. Due to the fast growing technology and innovations over a period
of time, mobile phones are now affordable to everyone.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrldOBxBdTLdAyrnW-Qeg5gDg_KWTJg2fidyCcmLvG9kId3Gv1hsC9yzqv9a0g4Cbn8otUaTFTRj_qwcb8OqpmKSHrPLKnXmAwOQy4Wqlh7moTr6xn2cDYWLf_mlHXAi0tA-0Br2T9u5c/s1600/6110.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrldOBxBdTLdAyrnW-Qeg5gDg_KWTJg2fidyCcmLvG9kId3Gv1hsC9yzqv9a0g4Cbn8otUaTFTRj_qwcb8OqpmKSHrPLKnXmAwOQy4Wqlh7moTr6xn2cDYWLf_mlHXAi0tA-0Br2T9u5c/s1600/6110.jpg" height="200" width="162" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">It was Charles Stevenson who invented radio
communication in early 1890s for keeping contacts with the offshore
lighthouses.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">In 1894, Marconi transmitted signals over the
distance of 2 km and Fessenden capably broadcasted music through radio by 1906.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">In 1908, Nathan B. Stubblefield lived in Murray,
Kentucky applied for the U.S. Patent 887,357 for a wireless telephone but he
originally applied only for radio telephones.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">The radio telephones were used for air traffic
safety as well as in the passenger airplanes. At the time of Second World War,
German tanks made great use of these radio telephones too.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Two way radios were an ancestor of the mobiles
phones. These mobile phones are referred to as 0G mobile phones, or Zero
Generation mobile phones.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Later these radio phones incorporated cigarette
lighter plugs and were called bag phones. They were fixed in the vehicles to be
used either as portable two way radios or mobile phones.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeRNax5jjyBCXEPsLVMDqzUFLfRqa43B2u6pn_w0gCydohKWej8a16sdZuaOISqtwgcDcRwmqvuSDAV2FCFPyIOyVEDeX19DmtzBEjwySIL1fnhtuM3eW4SWh5fy4J_WzGksXM4q-DAfA/s1600/martin+cooper.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgeRNax5jjyBCXEPsLVMDqzUFLfRqa43B2u6pn_w0gCydohKWej8a16sdZuaOISqtwgcDcRwmqvuSDAV2FCFPyIOyVEDeX19DmtzBEjwySIL1fnhtuM3eW4SWh5fy4J_WzGksXM4q-DAfA/s1600/martin+cooper.jpg" height="179" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="text-align: left; text-indent: -18pt;">
<br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">In 1940s, Motorola came with new developments in
mobile phones called as Walkie Talkie. It was large, bulky and battery operated
and was used by US military.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">In 1956, Ericsson Company released the earliest
full automatic cellular phone system called MTA in Sweden. It was operated automatically
but too much bulky, weighed around 40 kgs. Its lighter version was introduced
in 1965. This was known as MTB and used the DTMF signaling.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">In 1957, Leonid Kupriyanovich developed
experimental model of wearable mobile phones in Moscow, operating with the help
of base station. He developed the radio phone known as LK-1 whose battery lasted
for around 20-30 hours, weighing 3 kg, and worked within the distance of 20 to
30 km from the station.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">In 1966, another automatic pocket mobile phone
was developed in 1966 at Bulgaria called RAT-0.5, phone coordinated with the
base station known as RATZ-10.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Invention of mobile phones that closely
resembles today’s mobile phones is credited to Martin Cooper, employer and
researcher of Motorola.</span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">He initially
developed cellular phone named Motorola Dynatac in 1973.</span></div>
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<br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">It was 5 inches width and 9 inches in length, 2.5
pounds in weight having around 30 circuit boards in it. It had recharge time of
around 10 hours, talk time of 35 minutes. One could listen, dial and talk on
this mobile phone but display screen was still missing.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">The next major step in mobile phone history was
in the mid-eighties with the First Generation (1G) fully automatic cellular
networks were introduced.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Motorola DynaTac was the first ever mobile phone
to be approved by the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) in the USA in
1983.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">In 1993, the birth of the Second Generation (2G)
mobile phones was found in Finland. In the same year, first SMS text messages
were sent and that data services began to appear on mobile phones.</span><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">Mobiles that we use today are 3G mobiles, or
Third Generation mobiles, or even more advanced 4G handsets.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">3G launched was launched in 2001 and allowed
operators to enjoy a huge range of advanced services such as video calling and
HSPA data transmission.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: Symbol; text-indent: -18pt;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;">
</span></span><span style="text-indent: -18pt;">4G became commercially available in the UK in
late 2012 and offers superfast connections and similarly speedy downloads.</span><br /><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><br /><span style="text-indent: -18pt;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-89604525108596103292015-02-27T11:36:00.002-08:002015-02-27T11:36:56.779-08:00THERMOMETER<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Thermometer is a device used to measure temperature, by
using materials that change in some way when either heated or cooled. In a
mercury or alcohol thermometer, the liquid expands as it is heated and
contracts when it is cooled, so the length of the liquid column is longer or
shorter depending on the temperature. Modern thermometers are calibrated in
standard temperature units such as Fahrenheit or Celsius.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1C6imsfMghQ61HZuR0YMnKGr3rF-Vmn6n6N2T_iXCkqR_hvnd3ZbYOMooE2RvguZ_ewGZk7SyTTzhwVfuPsWVCpd29iJaitT5KB_cJrCcmarm_FMf__sOib49bFfK_i5d8ekw4nxdmJo/s1600/Early-Thermometer.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1C6imsfMghQ61HZuR0YMnKGr3rF-Vmn6n6N2T_iXCkqR_hvnd3ZbYOMooE2RvguZ_ewGZk7SyTTzhwVfuPsWVCpd29iJaitT5KB_cJrCcmarm_FMf__sOib49bFfK_i5d8ekw4nxdmJo/s1600/Early-Thermometer.jpg" height="320" width="240" /></a></div>
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In 1596, Galileo Galilei is often claimed to be the inventor
of the thermometer. However the instrument he invented was a thermoscope, the
predecessor to the thermometer. The
thermoscope is a thermometer without a scale. It indicates differences in
temperature if the temperature is higher or lower.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgx7uNNOqcUmFhVECA_St8MQyIhMXhI0XF3IUfxjT3jwDSShOvyqiFiekYnYiVpDgwqzucen4HJmBqM57DFmBjk4VCDUTFSJiYE9e8fWA-Djgq-My3MexkJnbVgAChjVeeiOMhZcf62mvA/s1600/galileo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgx7uNNOqcUmFhVECA_St8MQyIhMXhI0XF3IUfxjT3jwDSShOvyqiFiekYnYiVpDgwqzucen4HJmBqM57DFmBjk4VCDUTFSJiYE9e8fWA-Djgq-My3MexkJnbVgAChjVeeiOMhZcf62mvA/s1600/galileo.jpg" height="400" width="181" /></a></div>
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Savants had found out that it might be possible to use air
and water to invent a "ruler" or scale that would mark the grades
from cold to hot and back again. They experimented with thermoscope involving a
column of air in a tube with one end in a container of coloured water. In 1610,
Galileo tried it with wine instead, and so is credited with the first alcohol
thermometer.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The Italian, Santorio Santorio (1561-1636) is generally appreciated
for applying a scale to an air thermoscope around 1612 and thus is thought to
be the inventor of the thermometer as a temperature measuring device. Santorio's
instrument was an air thermometer. Its accuracy was poor due to the effects of
varying air pressure on the thermometer.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The first sealed thermometer was designed in 1641 for the
grand duke of Tuscany. It used alcohol, and it had degree marks. But the man who
used the freezing point of water as the "zero" or starting point was
a Londoner, Robert Hooke, in 1664. An astronomer called Roemer in Copenhagen
chose ice and the boiling point of water as his two reference points, and
started keeping weather records.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) was the German
physicist who invented the alcohol thermometer in 1709, and the mercury
thermometer in 1714. In 1724, he introduced the temperature scale that bears
his name - Fahrenheit Scale.<o:p></o:p></div>
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In 1724, a German instrument maker called Gabriel Fahrenheit
settled on mercury as the most suitable liquid for measuring temperature.</div>
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He calibrated his
first thermometer using a mixture of ice and water with sea salt as his zero.
But salt water has a much lower freezing point than ordinary water, so for his
purposes he chose his freezing point as 30, and the temperature inside the
mouth of a healthy human as 96. </div>
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With those three points, he established the
boiling point of water at 212 and later adjusted his freezing point of water to
32. This way, he could count 180 degrees between boiling and freezing, at sea
level.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Two decades later, Linnaeus - the Swede who invented the
taxonomic system naturalists now use for naming species - and a Swedish
astronomer called Anders Celsius separately worked out a scale of just one
hundred degrees between freezing and boiling points. Because there were 100
steps between the two states, it was called a "centigrade" scale.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Lord Kelvin took the whole process one step further and led
to the invention of the Kelvin Scale in 1848. The Kelvin Scale measures the
ultimate extremes of hot and cold. Kelvin developed the idea of absolute
temperature, often called the "Second Law of Thermodynamics", and
developed the dynamical theory of heat.<o:p></o:p></div>
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He used the centigrade scale, but started from absolute
zero, the point at which all molecular motion stops, the lowest conceivable
temperature in the universe. This turned out to be -273.16C.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-58950787259809930662015-02-26T11:41:00.000-08:002015-02-26T11:41:16.386-08:00GUN<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Weapons have been used from time immemorial. But they have been developed from time to time, catering to the needs of humans. The use of Longbow and swords are found in the historical wars or battles. Rat race of collecting arms for the national détente is not new. Whether for purpose of self defense or offence, guns have a fascinating history.<br />
<br />
Mythical monk from Germany is believed to have given idea of propelling projectile with the gunpowder in the 1300s. And Arabs are known to be inventors of earliest cannon named madfaa. This cannon was a wooden bowl with gunpowder in it and cannonball was made to stand on bowl’s rim. Its name that meant pot of fire, described how the iron bottle gripped gunpowder. Modern cannons were developed from this model only.<br />
<br />
It was in 1364 that mankind first recorded the use of a firearm. These weapons, called “hand cannons,” were the first step in the creation of guns.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5awTxg7P7FUyVtkqcGrfrc2gUSOPNuwZiYrzv5Rm5Yjf-CKcqCh_CwQPgqJj9etxTeuVuK5Aypcli6cFh40JHUUWhpGbe0JxWt_pNh4q6B3Cdy_WjL6uVvz3_7h3QcwgQJ3t40DIqeXg/s1600/Phillapine+Hand+Cannon.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5awTxg7P7FUyVtkqcGrfrc2gUSOPNuwZiYrzv5Rm5Yjf-CKcqCh_CwQPgqJj9etxTeuVuK5Aypcli6cFh40JHUUWhpGbe0JxWt_pNh4q6B3Cdy_WjL6uVvz3_7h3QcwgQJ3t40DIqeXg/s1600/Phillapine+Hand+Cannon.jpg" height="103" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">hand cannon</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Originally, a wick was tied to “touch hole” inside of the barrel of guns. Then, when one lit the wick, the powder would inevitably be ignited inside, creating the reaction needed to launch the projectile. Obviously it was awkward to hold both gun & slow match while trying to dip the match to the touch hole of the hand cannon.<br />
<br />
It was due to the matchlock gun arrived in the 1400s that guns began to evolve. This particular firearm was the first gun that used mechanics to release a bullet.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIS4sGYz0dCfDdjqFtNgQk52rLuV1TeR1cMFAxQNIl82Gf-qx5Y-o01ZKR7f1VQAbAaFh4ui4n2rLqhMwoxlp96z7dPEVTsWJIkMUYE3Z84cbwWZO4NPVBqU-dksJXOvgYPMTMWwekWJs/s1600/matchlock.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIS4sGYz0dCfDdjqFtNgQk52rLuV1TeR1cMFAxQNIl82Gf-qx5Y-o01ZKR7f1VQAbAaFh4ui4n2rLqhMwoxlp96z7dPEVTsWJIkMUYE3Z84cbwWZO4NPVBqU-dksJXOvgYPMTMWwekWJs/s1600/matchlock.jpg" height="131" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">matchlock gun</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Serpentine, the device was S-shaped and lowered slow match in priming pan whenever a gunman pressed the trigger. Introduction of this device had modernized gunnery while letting the aimers shoot and aim using both their hands. Musket was around 5-6 feet long with twenty pounds of weight. Supported by forked stick, musket users were known as musketeers.<br />
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In 1509, the creation of the wheel lock made for an even more intriguing and advanced weapon. Contrary to the matchlock, which required a wick to ignite the gun for usage, the wheel lock was a steel wheel that created the spark needed to ignite the gun.<br />
This wheel lock led to introduction of pistols. Slightly curved and with length of two feet made their way as gun of cavalry. But wheel lock used in the pistols was costly and hence army prepared cheaper matchlocks as replacements.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBttutJFs7Hi5zp-xMsm1IcW6EWaaGZLWwiZ1jlNuZJhaurMjOf01ro9r0_wQHjKS7b99ZpOW7TCf4G6MhPUy8GWj1TAO3WXcYxFbkS7DV8BooTmSYPXu3hIbPxbxWAV_Kb0b5ZbwlSYQ/s1600/Double-barreled_wheellock_pistol.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBttutJFs7Hi5zp-xMsm1IcW6EWaaGZLWwiZ1jlNuZJhaurMjOf01ro9r0_wQHjKS7b99ZpOW7TCf4G6MhPUy8GWj1TAO3WXcYxFbkS7DV8BooTmSYPXu3hIbPxbxWAV_Kb0b5ZbwlSYQ/s1600/Double-barreled_wheellock_pistol.jpg" height="267" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wheel lock gun</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The flintlock solved a longstanding problem. In the late 1500s, a lid was added to the flash pan design. To expose or protect the powder, the lid had to be moved manually. The flintlock mechanism was designed to push back the lid and spark a flint at the same time. The flintlock ignition system reigned for two centuries, with virtually no alteration.<br />
Flint is an amazingly hard form of rock. If iron or steel is striked with flint, the flint flakes off tiny particles of iron. The force of the blow and the friction it creates actually ignites the iron, and it burns rapidly to form Fe3O4. The sparks are the hot specks of iron burning. If these sparks come near gunpowder, they will ignite it.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEin2PNOTeFzU1qfgK7_K38nYlH0UY7lsUWnEISN27qaQxBZp9jBLe7DJH8oJplJAG07AAQ56CBgB9wwfrKu7PLoiWDTOheYHYcNWVdoKycVRrPFXFf4qRs0mkmC4Xa05sJ8tS2_NJMZtCA/s1600/washington_flintlock.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEin2PNOTeFzU1qfgK7_K38nYlH0UY7lsUWnEISN27qaQxBZp9jBLe7DJH8oJplJAG07AAQ56CBgB9wwfrKu7PLoiWDTOheYHYcNWVdoKycVRrPFXFf4qRs0mkmC4Xa05sJ8tS2_NJMZtCA/s1600/washington_flintlock.jpg" height="198" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Flintlock gun</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
The first multi-shot, revolving firearms that were mass produced came from Samuel Colt. Colt produced a gun that enabled people to fire multiple shots without reloading — a development that forever changed warfare.<br />
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Introduced at the start of the Civil War, Spencer repeating guns were technically advanced, used cartridges (a recent development), and could fire 7 shots in 15 seconds. But the Army didn’t want a repeating gun, fearing that soldiers would fire more often, constantly need fresh ammunition, and overtax the supply system.<br />
<br />
But in 1863,President Lincoln test-fired a Spencer. His approval led to the purchase of 107,372 Spencer repeating carbines and rifles (of 144,500 made), and the Spencer became the principal repeating gun of the Civil War.<br />
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Winchester rifles were affordable, and became the generic rifle. The Winchester had such a powerful hold in some regions that it actually became known as "the gun that won the West." In 1887, Winchester came out with their first repeating shotguns.<br />
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<br />
The next major milestone for Winchester came in 1903, when the company introduced the first automatic rifle that would become widely used.<br />
<br />
According to the National Firearms Museum, the first truly fully automatic machine guns (firearms that fire continuously while the trigger is held down) emerged in the 1880s when Hiram Maxim perfected the technology. Then, John Moses Browning followed these weapons up with the .30 caliber Model 1917 and the .50 caliber M-2 “Ma Deuce” — the latter of which is still used today.<br />
<br /></div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-56998325280336681232015-02-24T11:20:00.000-08:002015-02-24T11:20:33.744-08:00AUTOMOBILE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="MsoNormal">
The very first car might be the invention of a Flemish
missionary Verbiest who was born in Flanders in 1623 and was an accomplished
astronomer in Europe but left Europe for China in 1658.<o:p></o:p></div>
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He built a small, self-propelled vehicle which consisted of
a rudimentary, ball-shaped boiler, which then forced steam towards a turbine
that could turn the back wheels.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ4fLt2ExWcGx2cBOf7Mod7lQjQO3FXoTK9lYMv6dWkzpeXAGZ0VC43lBCYwpR081LQBbWt6VwstyyVEU4ESOPW39i2GN7lYqoYdKhEcy0OZ0d4XHHuzJ7hjxakvYcyKpKLY9va8YUbrE/s1600/verbiest.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZ4fLt2ExWcGx2cBOf7Mod7lQjQO3FXoTK9lYMv6dWkzpeXAGZ0VC43lBCYwpR081LQBbWt6VwstyyVEU4ESOPW39i2GN7lYqoYdKhEcy0OZ0d4XHHuzJ7hjxakvYcyKpKLY9va8YUbrE/s1600/verbiest.jpg" height="229" width="320" /></a></div>
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This was a remarkable achievement, but there were some
pretty big caveats . The car was so small just like a toy car. It was about two
feet long, far too tiny for any human to ride in it.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The 1700s were dominated by various inventors working to use
the steam engine in automobile. Thomas Newcomen and James Watt were probably
the most famous of these. But the first person to take a steam engine and place
it on a full-sized vehicle was a Frenchman named Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot, who
between 1769 and 1771 built a steam-powered automobile more than thirty years
before the railway's first steam locomotive.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Cugnot's design was quite unique. The contraption weighed
about 2.5 tons, had two big wheels in the back and a single thick central wheel
at the front, and could seat four people. The boiler was placed well out in the
front, which made the vehicle more difficult to control. While its top speed
was meant to be about five miles per hour.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghyphenhyphenj_C_dRo4BxmteLHGvD1E3QX7XRGoL69ItawHPYxONy58iNhbrU_LbPAmL_Zi_46Jd8f_W8KVev1rHgS4t-nSLtgVo_JffXJDBwloJujMlPhLl2siutDr-JchwoUDfwFmcvewLoVmcU/s1600/1771-Cugnot-steam-car.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEghyphenhyphenj_C_dRo4BxmteLHGvD1E3QX7XRGoL69ItawHPYxONy58iNhbrU_LbPAmL_Zi_46Jd8f_W8KVev1rHgS4t-nSLtgVo_JffXJDBwloJujMlPhLl2siutDr-JchwoUDfwFmcvewLoVmcU/s1600/1771-Cugnot-steam-car.jpg" height="176" width="320" /></a></div>
<o:p></o:p><br />
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Most people agreed with the fact that it had poor weight
distribution and so was unable to handle even moderately rough terrain. Since
its intended purpose was as a transport for heavy artillery on the battlefield,
that has to be considered a drawback.One story says that the second of Cugnot's
two vehicles crashed into a wall in 1771, which might make it the first ever
automobile accident. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Russian inventor Ivan Kulibin came with a steam-powered
vehicle in the 1780s, and it featured plenty of modern automotive hallmarks,
including brakes, gearbox, flywheel, and bearing. The problem is that, though
it did have a steam engine component, it still required human peddling to
operate, so it can't really be considered an automobile.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Steam-powered mass transit had some limited success in the
opening years of the 1800s, but it wasn't until the 1820s and 1830s that steam
buses began gaining popularity with the British public. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The steam buses proved to be something of a dead end, and
engineers turned their attention to traction engines, which were slower, more
stable machines that were basically just steam locomotives adapted for use on
land. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The Locomotive Act of 1865 said no land vehicle could travel
faster than 4 miles per hour, and that all such vehicles had to be preceded by
a man waving a red flag and blowing a horn. <o:p></o:p></div>
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While steam remained the main focus of inventors in search
of a practical automobile, the results remained difficult to control and
incapable of reaching speeds much over about five miles per hour. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The internal combustion engine provided the pathway to the
first modern automobiles, with Karl Benz generally getting the credit for the
first successful invention in 1886.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM2uLUgGo5VA9E7QWjIEPVqioipwTb1UY6E1zrr8zR2XO2GZ3jHzqxQvxPgP2aSfCx9Y-SIosEtvu8cx0s-syLGk0BiD2ksZZ7G048_kvs5yTp0bhmSvVoHePxOpqfqv9JdxV64lAoCzA/s1600/1885Benz.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjM2uLUgGo5VA9E7QWjIEPVqioipwTb1UY6E1zrr8zR2XO2GZ3jHzqxQvxPgP2aSfCx9Y-SIosEtvu8cx0s-syLGk0BiD2ksZZ7G048_kvs5yTp0bhmSvVoHePxOpqfqv9JdxV64lAoCzA/s1600/1885Benz.jpg" height="235" width="320" /></a></div>
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Vehicles with electrical engines were also invented. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert
Anderson of Scotland invented the first electric carriage. Electric cars used
rechargeable batteries that powered a small electric motor.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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The vehicles were
heavy, slow, expensive, and needed to stop for recharging frequently. Both
steam and electric road vehicles were abandoned in favor of gas-powered
vehicles. Electricity found greater success in tramways and streetcars, where a
constant supply of electricity was possible.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKzX2VsnvVHVQcgJE5Ds53HAwFK-dAGoy3HfkTmlgdsRxleuyTdqoAE1yx_6G0nCgXxbThx2m_91itVb1wMd8-Hhp2xcwzdc4lniL6qnxnBFugGnfNg-T-G4tflBhGapu0gvS2faclr9U/s1600/ford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKzX2VsnvVHVQcgJE5Ds53HAwFK-dAGoy3HfkTmlgdsRxleuyTdqoAE1yx_6G0nCgXxbThx2m_91itVb1wMd8-Hhp2xcwzdc4lniL6qnxnBFugGnfNg-T-G4tflBhGapu0gvS2faclr9U/s1600/ford.jpg" height="180" width="320" /></a></div>
<o:p></o:p><br />
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Austria has its own claim to the first inventor of the
automobile in Siegfreid Marcus. In 1870,
Marcus built a simple cart with a
gasoline engine directly linked to the rear wheels. This prototype had no steering, brakes,
gearing, clutch or seat. Marcus followed
up the first prototype with a design for a second car, which was built years
later in 1889. The papers of Marcus were
destroyed by the Nazis, who did not want to draw attention to the invention of
an early automobile by a Jew. <o:p></o:p></div>
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The first automobile to be produced in quantity was the 1901
Curved Dash Oldsmobile, which was built in the United States by Ransom E. Olds.
Modern automobile mass production, and its use of the modern industrial
assembly line, is credited to Henry Ford of Detroit, Michigan, who had built
his first gasoline-powered car in 1896.
Ford began producing his Model T in 1908, and by 1927, when it was
discontinued, over 18 million had rolled off the assembly line.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-66386502897158526052015-02-23T11:18:00.000-08:002015-02-23T11:18:19.963-08:00EYE GLASSES<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Roman philosopher Seneca was known to use water-filled
objects as a means to magnify text for reading as early as 4 B.C. It is believed
that the Egyptians and Assyrians were the initial inventors of optical lens
styles. They were depicted to made use of magnifying stones to enlarge text and
print. Initially Magnifying technology was used for the purpose of vision
correction and enhancing smaller images.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1BEayrNZH4o2hkNn0e9cNab35n_dlsuBed-M0Oxpsq08WbOp9lBNc0ZE-pKQ3gyH_S_UKz4TzP1_dYbA2XrguatRclOPQj838lAPPxjIEr3JQaC320oFdXoag-nKqEG-kMpg89gJVpw0/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1BEayrNZH4o2hkNn0e9cNab35n_dlsuBed-M0Oxpsq08WbOp9lBNc0ZE-pKQ3gyH_S_UKz4TzP1_dYbA2XrguatRclOPQj838lAPPxjIEr3JQaC320oFdXoag-nKqEG-kMpg89gJVpw0/s1600/1.jpg" height="238" width="320" /></a></div>
<o:p></o:p><br />
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The first vision aid was invented around 1000 AD popularly
known as reading stone. The reading stone was a glass sphere that was kept on
top of the reading material to magnify the letters. The first wearable eye
glasses were invented around 1284 in Italy. It is thought that Salvino D'Armate
was their inventor but this claim has been proven to be totally false.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Early recorded evidence demonstrates that glasses first
appeared in Pisa, Italy about the year 1286. Technically, they were formed from
two primitive convex shaped glass/crystal stones. Each was surrounded by a
frame and given a handle. These were then connected together through the ends
of their handles by a rivet.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The 15th century marks a crucial time in the development of
spectacles. The city of Florence by the middle of the fifteenth century led in
innovation, production, sale, and spread of spectacles within and outside Italy
as found in documents. Johann Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press
around 1450 made use of glasses by artisans as well as monks and other religious
scholars. By the end of the 15th century, spectacle peddlers were selling
glasses on the streets of Western Europe. People often rummaged through baskets
filled with German metal and leather spectacles in order to improve their
vision. The purchaser tried several pair and finally selected the one giving
clear vision. This demand increased exponentially after 1665, when the first
newspaper, the London Gazette, appeared.<o:p></o:p></div>
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During the 17th century tinted lenses first became popular.
Round lenses were almost universal. Until the end of the 18th century oval
lenses became more popular and fashionable. The earliest frames were made of
wood, horn, or bone. Leather frames had a relatively short life span but were
popular from the 16th to the middle of the 18th century. Rectangular lenses
became popular in the mid-1830’s. Some materials for later frames included
brass, tortoiseshell from the hawksbill turtle, baleen, steel, silver, and
gold. The cases also were often very finely crafted. The oldest existing
spectacle case in the world was found in 1982 in Freiburg, Germany and it
probably dates to the 14th century.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Aristocrats commonly used monocles as a status symbol and
fashion statement. The elegant double eyeglass on a handle (scissors glasses)
and the typically elaborate single lens magnifier (quizzer) had become common
among the more fashionable members of French and German society in the second
half of the 18th century. Both Lafayette and Napoleon used scissors glasses. <o:p></o:p></div>
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Lorgnettes, used most often by women, developed around 1780
from the scissors glasses of France and England. It is believed to have been
first popularized by London’s George Adams, Jr. (1750-1795). They had a handle
on the temporal side.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhRVYZIWkJwJkH1Ez99Kq0iRoD_6QqO0E5rKn5d5gBCXl_8l1l8t9bLPX5vicWF6zXTVNs20rQzmPRkit2jfZ4sbh-8X_B7Hlu65FIYCa8i8fJPiQyZZCWij1MdTir88zxF-TDw3RRpR8/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhRVYZIWkJwJkH1Ez99Kq0iRoD_6QqO0E5rKn5d5gBCXl_8l1l8t9bLPX5vicWF6zXTVNs20rQzmPRkit2jfZ4sbh-8X_B7Hlu65FIYCa8i8fJPiQyZZCWij1MdTir88zxF-TDw3RRpR8/s1600/2.jpg" height="231" width="320" /></a></div>
<o:p></o:p><br />
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In England, especially between 1758 and about 1790, the
so-called Martin’s Margins became popular. London optician Benjamin Martin
(1704-1782) developed Visual Glasses in 1756 in an attempt to reduce the
supposed damage to the eyes from excessive light. The aperture of the lenses
was reduced by a horn annulus placed inside the ordinary sized frame.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Bifocals or split lenses were improvised most likely in
London after the 1760’s by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). They were made by
halving lenses of differing powers and positioning the segments together with a
straight line across the middle. The upper portion was ground for distance
vision while the lower portion was ground for the near vision. He was certainly
wearing them and able to order them from local opticians by the mid 1780’s.
Franklin wrote to London philanthropist George Whatley in May 1785, "as I
wear my own glasses constantly, I have only to move my eyes up or down, as I
want to see distinctly far or near, the proper glasses being always
ready." Franklin’s split lens bifocal was the first "no-jump"
bifocal, one hundred years ahead of its time, because the distant optical
center, the near optical center, and the combined optical center were all at
the same point.<o:p></o:p></div>
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As the 19th Century came to a close, more and more people
wore their eyeglasses everyday. A
popular style of inexpensive, everyday spectacles was the pince-nez. French for
"pinch nose," the pince-nez was first developed in France circa 1840
and began to be imported to America after the 1850s.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Pince-nez have no temples, but are fit snugly on the bridge
of the nose. Pince- nez could be uncomfortable to wear and broke often from
falling of the nose. The popularity of pince-nez was helped by political
figures such as U.S. Presidents Teddy Roosevelt and Calvin Coolidge who wore
them regularly.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Although pince-nez were still widely popular in the 1920s,
they began to be seen as stuffy and old-fashioned. A Hollywood actor named
Harold Lloyd was known for wearing tortoiseshell spectacles with large, round
lenses. His photos and Hollywood movies started a fashion craze for temple
spectacles.<o:p></o:p></div>
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In the 1930s sunglasses became popular for the first time. Sir
William Crookes of England created a lens capable of absorbing both ultraviolet
and infrared light. Further advances in sunglass design were accomplished in
order to meet the needs of military pilots in World War II (1939 - 1945). As a
result, manufacturers began to market sunglasses that were both practical and
fashionable.<o:p></o:p></div>
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By the 1940s, advances in the manufacture of plastics made a
large variety of spectacles available in every color of the rainbow. Women wore
frames characterized by an upsweep on the top rim, a style that was very
popular until the end of the 1950s, while men tended to sport gold wire frames.<o:p></o:p></div>
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By the latter half of the 20th century, spectacles were considered
part of a person's wardrobe. More and more celebrities were influencing
spectacle fashion, for example, in the 1970s Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis helped
to popularize oversized lenses.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-35249023284883121782015-01-14T11:45:00.000-08:002015-01-14T11:45:31.229-08:00LOCK AND KEY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0cm 0cm 2.0pt 0cm;">
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The lock originated in the Near East, and the earliest known
lock to be operated by a key was the Egyptian lock. Possibly around 4000 years
ago, the large wooden lock was found in the ruins of the palace of Khorsabad
near Nineveh, the ancient capital of Assyria. </div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi82mHBval-qNs5Yl0Ckl7_sbkZphDDaTeIFTf3q8FJD5PdUb3f9Krdz5U_HjSTmTwFBx16krk01fxYQQkGPw0iCM0kv_zKaOt7iju2ubxYwqhBl7PhgnxNEvXoJRCSOO68VJh-lh2jS_U/s1600/jh.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi82mHBval-qNs5Yl0Ckl7_sbkZphDDaTeIFTf3q8FJD5PdUb3f9Krdz5U_HjSTmTwFBx16krk01fxYQQkGPw0iCM0kv_zKaOt7iju2ubxYwqhBl7PhgnxNEvXoJRCSOO68VJh-lh2jS_U/s1600/jh.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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<div class="underline">
The Egyptian lock is also known
as the pin-tumbler type, and it evolved as a practical solution to the problem
of how to open a barred door from the outside. The first and simplest locks
were probably just a bar of wood or a bolt across a door. To open it from the
outside, a hand-size opening was made in the door.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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This pin-tumbler type lock consisted of a vertical wooden
housing containing several loose wooden pegs of different lengths. These pegs
fitted into holes bored in the top of a wooden bolt, preventing the bolt from
being moved and the door from being opened. </div>
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An oblique slot in the bolt
provided access for a long wooden key with pegs of various lengths located on
one surface and corresponding to the pegs in the vertical housing. When the key
was inserted into the bolt and lifted, the pegs inside the housing lined up
evenly at the top of the bolt, and permitting the door to be opened.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ2En1A7RCBqEi7KtD4tjNbDFaVRtuCLbm6H0-ekYXWuxluXMm7athJHW5_ITHzZyDhPPWQX6mzXFbQi7jtCpcenllMy7KXVP0Obp-KZvrlWOw13Iy8_WIPN-pBT_GWu8J7ZGqOScvCP0/s1600/download.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZ2En1A7RCBqEi7KtD4tjNbDFaVRtuCLbm6H0-ekYXWuxluXMm7athJHW5_ITHzZyDhPPWQX6mzXFbQi7jtCpcenllMy7KXVP0Obp-KZvrlWOw13Iy8_WIPN-pBT_GWu8J7ZGqOScvCP0/s1600/download.jpg" height="234" width="400" /></a></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Specially designed
large and heavy wooden key was shaped like modern toothbrush with pegs that
corresponded to the holes and pins in the lock. This key could be inserted into
opening and lifted, which would move the pins and allow security bolt to be
moved.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">During 1st millennia
BC, locks finally started improving with the technologies and designs that were
introduced by Greeks and Romans. Greek locks were commonly viewed as unsecure. They
used a lock that worked by fastening the wooden bolt and staple to the inside
of the door. The key was a sickle-shaped wooden or iron key manipulated and
lift the bolt.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">The ancient Romans
built the first metal locks, and their iron locks and bronze keys are easily
recognizable even today. They improved the Egyptian model by adding wards or projections
or obstructions inside the lock that the key must bypass in order to work.</span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">The Romans also invented the portable padlock with
a U-shaped bolt which is known to have invented independently by the
Chinese. Some Roman locks used springs to hold the tumblers in place, and the
Romans made locks small enough that they could wear tiny keys on their fingers
like rings.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">The further
development of the ward lock gave us padlocks. The Russians, Chinese, Turkish
and East Indian used ornate metal padlocks which utilised all kinds of intricate
designs.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">In 1778, Robert
Barron, invented the double tumbler lock. The tumbler is a lever that falls
into a slot in the bolt thus preventing any movement, until picked up by the
key to the height of the slot. This had to be done for each of the two tumblers
at different heights, and then the key would slide the bolt. This innovation is
still the basis of all lever locks.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">In 1784, Joseph
Bramah, displayed a lock to anyone who could pick it offering a prize of 200
guineas. In 1851, An American locksmith after trying for 51 hours was the first
to open it and win the prize. In 1795, Bramah invented the hydraulic press,
a check numbering machine and quill cutting machine to make the point or nibs
of quills or pens. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">In 1818 Jeremiah
Chubb introduced an improved lever tumbler lock.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">England had been the
centre of innovations in lock-making for the past couple of centuries. It was
Linus Yale Jr., son of an inventor & locksmith who started producing bank
locks in a factory in Newport New York. He designed and patented the Yale
infallible bank lock 1851. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">His factory in Shelburne Falls Massachusetts became
famous for its innovative bank locks. The Yale magic bank lock and the Yale
double treasury bank lock/.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">In 1861, he introduced combination lock. His most important
invention was the cylinder lock based on ancient Egyptian design. In 1868 Linus
and Henry Robinson Towne founded the Yale Lock Manufacturing Company and set-up
a factory in Stamford Connecticut to produce cylinder locks. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">In 1873, James
Sargent of Rochester, New york patented a time lock mechanism that became the
prototype of those being used in contemporary bank vaults. The time mechanism
was concealed, utilizing as many as three clocks to cover a total of three
days. The bolt was released, for the time the clocks were set to, and the safe
then opened to the correct combination.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">In 1916, Samuel Segal
introduced first jemmy-proof lock and In 1924, Harry Soref in 1924 introduced
first padlock.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-65482621413165468452015-01-13T12:56:00.000-08:002015-01-13T12:56:21.136-08:00TELESCOPE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="underline">
The history of the telescope dates back to the early 1600s. Galileo
Galilei is commonly credited for inventing the telescope, but this is not
accurate. Hans Lippershey who was a lens maker is the real inventor of the
telescope, being the first person to create the designs for the first practical
telescope. Lippershey lived in Middelburg in the Netherlands.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0IrUyfWddtO8uMuGcrshuXhMa2xoXkeZTeA4RZhwWdroozXUBiENR4D3d4cKT_GdBI1lHby5NEt0rzp98e9RVGHG-GHJosU_smB1M_FxOMdmY9zRSJpe0nheKB_rlNHDBI4DIN4mmEZE/s1600/first-scope.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0IrUyfWddtO8uMuGcrshuXhMa2xoXkeZTeA4RZhwWdroozXUBiENR4D3d4cKT_GdBI1lHby5NEt0rzp98e9RVGHG-GHJosU_smB1M_FxOMdmY9zRSJpe0nheKB_rlNHDBI4DIN4mmEZE/s1600/first-scope.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Lippershey filed application for a patent on the 25th of
September 1608 i.e. a few weeks earlier to <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jacob Metius who was also an instrument maker
and optician in a city in the northern part of the Netherlands. Although he failed
to receive a patent but was handsomely rewarded by the Dutch government for
copies of his design. The telescope invented by Lippershey had a magnification
of just 3x.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another spectacle-maker Zacharias Jansen might prove a more
lawful claim to have invented the telescope decades after the initial claims by
Lippershey and Metius..<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Galileo was the first person to use a telescope for the
purpose of astronomy in 1609. In 2009 it completed a total of 400 years so celebrated
as the International Year of Astronomy. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Dutch diplomat William Boreel, who was apparently known
to both Jansen and Lippershey in Middleburg during his youth, claimed that
Lippershey stole his ideas from Jansen. Boreel was only being overzealous in
his support of Jansen. There is no real evidence that Lippershey did not
develop telescope independently.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Regardless of the inventor, most of the earliest versions of
the telescope used a curved lens made of polished glass at the end of a tube to
magnify objects to a factor of 3x.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Galileo had heard of the "Dutch perspective glass"
by means of which distant objects appeared nearer and larger and constructed
his own version of it without ever seeing one and stated that he solved the
problem of the construction of a telescope in one night.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Instead of the initial
3 power magnification, he crafted a series of lenses that in combination magnify
things by 8, 20 and eventually 30 times.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
He took it to Venice where he delivered the details of his
invention to the public and presented the instrument itself to the Senate.
Galileo may thus claim to have invented the telescope independently, although
Galileo's immense improvement of the instrument overshadowed to a great degree
the credit due to Lippershey as the original inventor.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The lens telescope is still in use today in smaller
telescopes, but many larger and more powerful telescopes use a reflective
mirror and eyepiece combination that was initially invented by Isaac Newton called
a “Newtonian” telescope after its inventor. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These types of telescopes have a
polished mirror at the end of a tube, which reflects the image into an eyepiece
at the top of the tube.<o:p></o:p></div>
</div>
Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-62966201896008385392015-01-11T11:53:00.000-08:002015-01-11T11:53:12.252-08:00AEROPLANE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="underline">
The idea of flying high like birds and kites was the
inspiration of the inventors of Aeroplane. Few decades back, there was a time
when travelling was not as easy as it is today and flying in the air looked to
be a dream never come true in real sense. One had to spend days for travelling
from one part to another. Invention of Aeroplane made it quite easy to cover
thousands of kms in very less time. It was a revolutionary invention for
travelling across the world.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJJ_2JAq2DT9A94hHuc-6AMG1Kl_AjN4y9CjKT0SUHel1tRufCNBKlf96Guda-BAS0Z2XT4dmSO8d-vkDtj9b_-_iwBg2LJtf5QVlfGuZtSNO82Mc-CQ1cYvIZCG-_eVmLd2zk8lnqMNo/s1600/1902Gldr_flying.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJJ_2JAq2DT9A94hHuc-6AMG1Kl_AjN4y9CjKT0SUHel1tRufCNBKlf96Guda-BAS0Z2XT4dmSO8d-vkDtj9b_-_iwBg2LJtf5QVlfGuZtSNO82Mc-CQ1cYvIZCG-_eVmLd2zk8lnqMNo/s1600/1902Gldr_flying.jpg" height="239" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
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During 1880, Hiram Maxiam invented steam powered flying
machine but the machine was too bulky impossible to fly in air. Samuel Langley
also tried the steam powered planes and introduced one in 1894 that covered
around 0.8 kms in around 1½ minutes. Then he designed another plane but its flights
led to crashing in the lake. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
And finally in 19th century, the heroes- Wilbur
Wright and Orville Wright came up and took the first step towards the
successful invention of Aeroplane, was research through reading various books
on it. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The real breakthrough in this research was the invention of
"wing-warping." If the pilot wanted to bank a turn to the left, the
wings could be warped to provide more lift on the wings on the right side of
the biplane. The brothers worked out a system for 3-axis control that is still
used today on fixed-wing aircraft: left and right like a car or boat, up and
down and banking a turn as birds do like leaning to one side while riding a
bicycle. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Working with kites in 1899, the brothers figured out and tested their
systems for 3-axis control. They chose a remote location at Kitty Hawk in North
Carolina as the test site due its sand, wind, hilly terrain and for next two
years did experiments with gliders at Kitty Hawk only. They used wind tunnel to
find the proper lift. They found that the formula for lift that is "Smeaton
coefficient" <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in use for over 100
years <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was wrong. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In year 1900, the Wright brothers tested the new biplane
glider with 17 foot wing warping technique and wingspan, weighing 50 pound at
the Kitty Hawk, in piloted as well unmanned flights. Based on the glider’s
results, the brothers planned on refining landing gear and controls and
designed a larger glider.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In the year 1901, at the Kill Devil Hill in North Corolina,
the brothers flew largest glider ever with 100 pound weight and 22 foot
wingspan. The wings did not have enough power to lift, forward elevator was not
that effective and its wing warping technology caused it to spin out of control
occasionally.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Wrights refused to give up in spite of all the problems
being faced by them. They keep reviewing the test results till they found out
that the calculations used for the mechanism were not up to the mark. Then they
thought of building wind tunnel for testing the wing shapes and their effect on
the lift. Based on the tests, the inventors understood how airfoil wing worked
and calculated how well a wing design could work. Their plan was to design the
new glider with around 32 foot wingspan and tail for stabilization.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The 1902 glider was actually the first fully controlled
heavier-than-air craft. It was essentially more important invention than the
1903 biplane. On March 23, 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright filed a patent
application for a "Flying Machine." The patent was awarded May 22,
1906. From that point remarkable progress was made in the development of
powered flight.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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On Monday, December 14, 1903, the brothers decided that
Wilbur would take the first turn as pilot for the historic flight by flipping a
coin. They and the ground crew (5 lifeguards from the beach) had lugged the
plane weighing six hundred pounds 1/4 mile to the big hill, laid out the
60-foot monorail, and were ready to go. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Because of the slope and the force from
the propellers there was a problem getting it unhooked. The plane accelerated
down the track so fast that Orville, running alongside to steady the wing by
holding on to an upright, couldn't keep up. Wilbur turned the sensitive rudder
up too sharply, the flying machine nosed up, slowed, came down in that
position, and the left wing hit the sandy hillside and swung the plane around,
breaking several parts. It was not a real flight but they become more confident
that it would work.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Two days later, repairs had been completed, but the wind
wasn't right. The following day, Thursday, December 17, 1903, was the historic
day. They realized it would be better to lay the track on flat ground. That and
the strong (22-27 m.p.h.) winds meant that Orville (whose turn it was to pilot)
was riding the plane along the track, at a speed that allowed Wilbur to keep up
easily, steadying the right wing as Orville had done 3 days earlier. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Just after
the Wright flyer lifted off the monorail, the famous picture was taken,
possibly the most reproduced photograph ever, which Orville had set up. The
flight was just for 12 seconds, 120 feet. But it was the first controlled, sustained
flight in a heavier-than-air craft, one of the great moments of the century.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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The brothers flew 3 more times that day, covering more
distance as they got used to the way the large front "rudder" (the
elevator) responded in flight. Orville's second flight was 200 feet, and
Wilbur's before it nearly as long. But the final flight of the day carried
Wilbur 852 feet in 59 seconds.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The Wright brothers soon realized that their success was not
appreciated by all. Many in the press, as well as fellow flight experts, were
reluctant to believe the brothers’ claims at all. As a result, Wilbur set out
for Europe in 1908, with a hope to have more success convincing the public and
selling airplanes.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Wrights began to sell their airplanes in Europe, before
returning to the United States in 1909. The brothers became wealthy
businessmen, filling contracts for airplanes in Europe and the United States.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Their first powered Aeroplane was named Flyer. It was plane
with two wooden wings which were 40 feet wide, covered with the cotton cloth, 12
horse powered engine. This plane demanded pilot to be in lower wing on his
stomach for the steering. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
And in year 1908, another plane was introduced by the
brothers that stayed in the air for about 1½ hours. In year 1909, the brothers
got a contract from US military for building first plane for them. In 1911,
Calbriath Rodgers was the one that made first flight across U.S possible.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since then, Airplane
travel has improved a lot. Airplanes now cover thousands of miles at great
altitudes of 7 miles and more, carrying around 300 passengers. Jet engines have
now replaced the propellers and they travel with speed of more than 600 miles
every hour. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Not even Wright Brothers would have imagined the way air travel has
turned today. Consistent efforts and hardwork of the Brothers and other
inventors have offered the comfort of air travel today. The best part is that
in innovations never stop, they are ongoing. So, one can look forward to
advancements in the field.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Wilbur fell ill on a trip to Boston in April 1912. He was
diagnosed with typhoid fever, and died on May 30 at his family home in Dayton,
Ohio. Milton Wright wrote in his diary, “A short life, full of consequences. An
unfailing intellect, imperturbable temper, great self-reliance and as great
modesty.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-57927836150455241492015-01-09T12:36:00.001-08:002015-01-09T12:36:29.951-08:00INVENTION OF CHESS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div style="border-bottom: solid #4F81BD 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-themecolor: accent1; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0cm 0cm 2.0pt 0cm;">
<div class="underline">
It is believed that there was an ancient Indian game called
Chaturanga which literally means "having four limbs (or parts)" and
in epic poetry often means "army" having
four parts- elephants, chariots, horsemen, foot soldiers. The name came
from a battle formation mentioned in the Indian epic Mahabharata.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCy337yOksPuUnaG6jmQjgcBYfPYcfyeOHCOsgnr78nkL1PFbIzVlqHOTwkTPtEp8oZIo3m-4LJO2c2Tr_fs508N4vU9F7SVtP4Qi3dcXbc-WJcClXkfjQIKRMgbqY71w9SxptwjOuUwM/s1600/chess_side.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCy337yOksPuUnaG6jmQjgcBYfPYcfyeOHCOsgnr78nkL1PFbIzVlqHOTwkTPtEp8oZIo3m-4LJO2c2Tr_fs508N4vU9F7SVtP4Qi3dcXbc-WJcClXkfjQIKRMgbqY71w9SxptwjOuUwM/s1600/chess_side.jpg" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The game
chaturanga was a battle-simulation game which rendered Indian military strategy
of the time and it is believed that modern Chess evolved from it. The history
of chess is about 1500 years old. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The earliest predecessor of the game probably
originated in India, before the 6th century AD; some historians believe the
game originated in China. From India, the game spread to Persia. When the Arabs
conquered Persia, chess was taken up by the Muslim world and subsequently
spread to Southern Europe. In Europe, chess evolved into roughly its current
form in the 15th century. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
But how this game was invented is still a question. So let
us have a look over this.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is believed that
there was a king, Shihram, ruled over India long years ago. He was a despot. He
called a mathematician in his court and ordered him to design a game that was
more challenging and interesting and used a lot of brain tactics. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After struggling
a lot of months with all kinds of ideas, the mathematician came up with the
game of “Chaturanga” to show the king how important everybody is, who lives in
his kingdom, even the smallest among them was the part of the game.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The game
had two armies each lead by a King who commanded the army to defeat the other
by capturing the enemy King. It was played on a simple 8x8 square board. The
King liked this game so much that he offered to give the poor mathematician
anything he wished for. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The mathematician asked the king to give him grain of wheat
in a way one grain on first square of board, double of it on second square of
board, double of second on third square of board and so on till 64<sup>th</sup>
square of board.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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The king became angry and shouted, "I have offered you
all my treasures and you want just wheat? You can take gold or silver and can
have rich and luxurious life but you are insulting me asking for some grains of
wheat.”<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
"Oh no!" said the man. "I don't want to insult
you, my king. Please respect my wish and you will see that my wish is truly
great."<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The king called his servants and ordered to put the wheat on
the chess board exactly as the mathematician wished. The servants brought a lot
of wheat. It soon filled many rooms but they realized that they could not
fulfill the wise man's wish.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
All the wealth in his kingdom would not be enough to buy the
amount of wheat needed on the 64th square. In fact the whole kingdoms supply of
wheat was exhausted before the 30th square was reached.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The king realized that the wise man had given him a lesson
again. He learned that you should never underestimate the small things in life.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The chess board has 64 squares and if you put just one grain
on the first and double up on the next and so on, you will reach an enormous
amount of grain.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 9,223,372,036,854,775,808 on the 64th
square and<o:p></o:p></div>
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18,446,744,073,709,551,615 total for the whole board<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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That's about 18 billion billion. So if a bag of rice
contained a billion grains, you would need 18 billion such bags. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In China, Chaturanga was transformed into the game ”xiangqi”
where the pieces are placed on the intersection of the lines of the board rather
than within the squares. The object of the Chinese variation is similar to
chaturanga, i.e. to render helpless the opponent's king, known as
"general" on one side and "governor" on the other. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chinese
chess also borrows elements from the game of Go, which was played in China
since at least the 6th century BC. Owing to the influence of Go, Chinese chess
is played on the intersections of the lines on the board, rather than in the
squares. The game of Xianqi is also unique in that the middle rank represents a
river, and is not divided into squares. Chinese chess pieces are usually flat
and resemble those used in checkers, with pieces differentiated by writing their
names on the flat surface.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A prominent variant of chess can be seen in East Asia in the
game of “shogi”, transmitted from India to China and Korea before finally
reaching Japan. The three distinguishing features of shogi are:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
captured pieces may be reused by the captor and played as a part of the
captor's forces.<o:p></o:p></div>
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2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Pawns
capture as they move, one square straight ahead.<o:p></o:p></div>
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3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>9×9
square board was used, with a second queen (called a gold general) on the other
side of the king.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This way chess went on spreading to other countries also but
it was during the second half of the 19th century that modern chess tournament
play began, and the first World Chess Championship was held in 1886. The 20th
century saw great leaps forward in chess theory and the establishment of the
World Chess Federation (FIDE). <o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-38460295197166551142015-01-08T11:32:00.000-08:002015-01-08T11:32:38.175-08:00LIGHT BULB<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<o:p> </o:p>Invention of Light Bulb illuminated our dark nights and made
human existence hospitable for different human activities. It was a kind of
revolution in human existence. There is also a story behind this revolutionary
invention. Let us throw a light on the invention of light bulb.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNyC5begUFh2ZrqgEOxzmQsE14sM7d73v-oxSWI9JOt5hfcdtvil2e7fV-OPOUL2TDpHFSqqLgFfZDvbJJ3n14GCbcLyyKWJ5nvnx_1nJ6LkY4lQdWT8j1agO1o3UR1pu11AYX2pdBU5o/s1600/10276213.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNyC5begUFh2ZrqgEOxzmQsE14sM7d73v-oxSWI9JOt5hfcdtvil2e7fV-OPOUL2TDpHFSqqLgFfZDvbJJ3n14GCbcLyyKWJ5nvnx_1nJ6LkY4lQdWT8j1agO1o3UR1pu11AYX2pdBU5o/s1600/10276213.jpg" height="320" width="225" /></a></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1806, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Humphrey Davy, an Englishman, demonstrated a
powerful electric lamp illumination by creating a blinding electric spark
between two charcoal rods, known as an "arc lamp,". This lamp
required <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>tremendous source of power and
the batteries so was impractical for most uses.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Now Scientists knew that if some material got hot enough, it
will start glowing. This method could be employed for producing light. The
problem with this method of making light was that material would burst into
flame or melt into a puddle. If incandescent light was to be made practical,
these twin problems would have to be solved.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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In 1820, Warner Rue produced light bulb by passing electric
current through platinum coil in empty tube. But because platinum was very
expensive, this bulb was not really commercially feasible. In 1840, Joseph Swan
invented a light bulb using carbonized, paper filament. He also patented the
bulb in year 1860. But the bulb used to show dim light and was not at all long
lasting. <o:p></o:p></div>
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It was found that to keep incandescent "burners"
from catching fire was to not let them come into contact with oxygen. Oxygen is
a necessary ingredient in the combustion process. Since oxygen is in the
atmosphere, the only way to keep it away from burning was to enclose the burner
in a glass container, or "bulb," can be saved from burning by pump
out the entire air.</div>
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<br /></div>
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In 1841 a British inventor named Frederick DeMoleyns
patented a bulb using just this technique in burners made of platinum and
carbon. An American named J. W. Starr also received a patent in 1845 for a bulb
using vacuum in conjunction with a carbon burner. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Many others, including an
English chemist named Joseph Swan, improved and patented versions of bulbs
using a vacuum with burners of various materials and shapes. None, however,
proved practical for everyday use. Swan's lamp, for example, used carbonized
paper that would quickly crumble after being lit a short time.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhttnNQW4jTdnXFdyorH_3OsPAx30392asdeHgsquIYUvlxAuApJgJ40COCGskTak9i39ufS886IJjYO9iYUKR3z15wPm855evG26VmetyyL7pxw2kOHr96PdRroJt1XzOp4JgdqLnriss/s1600/Tantalum_light_bulb.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhttnNQW4jTdnXFdyorH_3OsPAx30392asdeHgsquIYUvlxAuApJgJ40COCGskTak9i39ufS886IJjYO9iYUKR3z15wPm855evG26VmetyyL7pxw2kOHr96PdRroJt1XzOp4JgdqLnriss/s1600/Tantalum_light_bulb.png" height="320" width="163" /></a></div>
<o:p></o:p><br />
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<br /></div>
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Sir Thomas Eliot made the bulb commercially feasible in the
year 1875. He had tirelessly worked towards making light bulb better. He also
introduced a bamboo filament lamp soon after working on light bulb. By using
Herman Spiegel’s vacuum pump, he successfully created vacuum inside his lamp’s
chamber.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thomas Edison did not really invented light bulb but had
worked on it to offer an improved version. In 1879, with the help of low
current electricity, improved vacuum, carbonized filament, he produced long
lasting ad reliable source of light. He tried to offer practical lighting for
homes. After working for around 18 months, Edison attained success in form of
incandescent lamp that had filament of the carbonized thread that burned for
around fourteen hours.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Electric light’s success brought name to Thomas Edison. He
achieved great heights of wealth and fame as the electricity had spread
throughout. His different companies continued to expand until 1889 and then
Edison General Electric came into being. Even though company was in his name,
he did not control it. Need for capital for developing lighting industry
persuaded him to involve bankers like J.P Morgan. In year 1892, he merged the
company with leading opponent Thompson-Houston and company’s name became
General Electric.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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Edison soon realized that any good burner would have to have
a high electrical resistance, otherwise too much electricity would be needed to
warm the material to the point where it would give off light. All materials
have an amount of electrical "friction" that resists electricity
moving through it. This is known as the material's electrical resistance.
Materials with high resistance more easily get hot when electricity passes
through them. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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More carbonized organic materials were tested and Japanese
bamboo proved to be the best. By the end of 1880 Edison's carbonized bamboo
burners, now called filaments because they were fashioned into a long, thin
thread, were burning in bulbs as long as 600 hours. The "filament"
proved to be the best shape to increase the materials electrical resistance and
physical strength.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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The carbonized bamboo had a high resistance and fit well
into Edison's scheme for building a whole electrical power system to provide
lighting. By 1882 he had established the Edison Electrical Light Company which
had a generating station located on Perl Street, providing New York City with
electrical lighting. In 1883 Macy's in New York City became the first store to
install the new incandescent lamps.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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In 1901, Peter Hewitt introduced mercury vapor lamp that
emitted bluish white lighting. Later on, brighter lamp using sodium vapor was
invented. Willies Whitney came up with metal covering or carbon filament to
prevent it from burning and charring, in turn making the bulb black. In 1906,
General Electric launched tungsten filament that had higher melting point.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though Thomas Eliot
knew the use of the metal but he did have machinery for developing it during
his time. In the year 1910, another engineer named William Coolidge invented tungsten
filament that lasted longer. Beginning of 1920 witnessed discovery of frosted
light bulb and its use in neon lights and cars. In the year 1930, photographic
flash bulb was discovered. And with 1940s entered soft incandescent bulbs, with
1950s came quartz glass for halogen bulbs. 1960s and 70s made way for the
ellipsoid reflector, metal halide lamp. And finally in year 1990, Philips
launched 60,000-hour bulb using magnetic induction.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now bulbs have come a
long way and scientists are working 24x7 to offer power saving, efficient and
environment savvy bulbs. CFLS and LED bulbs are replacing the incandescent
bulbs. Though a little costlier, they are environment friendly and power
saving. Incandescent bulbs can be reasonably characterized just as heater that
produces lights. As the typical incandescent offers only 3-5% light of the
total energy it takes up. Remaining energy is wasted as heat. CFLs on the other
side employ 75% lesser energy in the comparison and lasts 10 times longer.
Useful long life and efficiency adds to the popularity of CFLs.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>LED is more energy
efficient than CFLs too. Standard LED offers around 35 lumens of light per watt
as compared to around 12 lumen offered by an incandescent bulb. LED bulbs are
getting developed and soon they would offer 131 lumens every watt. These are
used in trail lights of trucks and cars, watch dials, digital clocks, traffic
signals, Christmas lights. Long life and durability has made it popular these
days. It has become an ideal lighting for homes. One can find a range of LED
bulbs in the market.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From simple light
bulbs to CFLs and LEDs, bulbs have covered a long way. Hardly did we know that
small thing like bulb can literally illuminate our lives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-25869057267358247282015-01-07T11:28:00.000-08:002015-01-07T11:28:16.480-08:00WRISTWATCH<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<div class="underline">
Less than 100 years
ago, gentlemen who were self- respecting in society would not found wearing a
wristwatch. In those days, pocket watches were very popular among them, with a gold
half-hunter. Pocket watches were preferred status symbol of that time.</div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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Wristlets or bracelets were reserved for women, even
wristwatches used to be a female accessories. People used to make fun of the
gentlemen found wearing wristwatch. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSXxfNrEA8aYUjVdYaVs6VijsF23lroX09hPZ2uGmK6-9CLiDE15EWRXqy2nEu1rzTwZ_9rbQ8r5NoVxSWyhP4FEW9rSWavou4El3I5Sq0N-PADSeazHVHtIlkJFsT8ga2DxFhN0uCPwU/s1600/harrods-early-wristwatch.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSXxfNrEA8aYUjVdYaVs6VijsF23lroX09hPZ2uGmK6-9CLiDE15EWRXqy2nEu1rzTwZ_9rbQ8r5NoVxSWyhP4FEW9rSWavou4El3I5Sq0N-PADSeazHVHtIlkJFsT8ga2DxFhN0uCPwU/s1600/harrods-early-wristwatch.gif" height="300" width="400" /></a></div>
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Neither of the well-established watchmaking companies ever think
to experiment with any kind of wristwatch for the man nor they think to
withstand the basic rigors of human activity. Very few companies produced them
in quantity, majority of those making small ladies’ models like delicate fixed
wire or chain-link bracelets.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Today, a wristwatch is considered as a status symbol to tell
time. The mechanical wristwatch has slowly become a piece of modern culture when
cell phones and digital pagers display tiny quartz clocks.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There are dozens of prestigious wristwatches available in
the market such as Rolex, Vacheron Constantin, Frank Müller, Jaeger-LeCoultre
and even Patek Phillipe. But how people adopted the use of wristwatch by
everyone. There must be some story behind this. Let us see how this happened.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Pocket watches used to be clumsy to carry and hence difficult
to operate while in difficult situations. In the nineteenth century, soldiers
discovered the usefulness of wristwatches during wartime situations. The soldiers
fitted them into primitive cupped leather straps to be worn on the wrist,
thereby freeing up their hands during battle. It is believed that
Girard-Perregaux equipped the German Imperial Naval with similar pieces wore on
their wrists in 1880 for synchronizing naval attacks, and firing artillery.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The British troops were superiorly trained and equipped. They
used wristwatches to coordinate simultaneous troop movements, and synchronize
flanking attacks against the Boer’s formations while attacking the Boer’s
heavily entrenched positions. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The evolution of wristlets took an even bigger
step with the invention of the expandable flexible bracelet, as well as the
introduction of wire loops (or lugs) soldered onto small, open-faced pocket
watch cases, allowing leather straps to be more easily attached. This helped in
their adaptation for military use and thus was a turning point in the
development of wristwatches for men.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Another issue was the use of the delicate glass crystal that
could broke out during combat so “pierced metal covers”, frequently called
shrapnel guards were used. These were basically metal grills (often made of
silver), placed over the dial of the watch hence protecting the glass from
damage allowing the time to be easily read. Leather covers were often used to
place over the watch for protection from damage but they were cumbersome to
use, and thus were primarily seen in the extreme climates of Australia and
Africa.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Even with their success in combat, the popularity of the
wristwatch didn’t reach the mainstream market until some two decades later,
when soldiers from around the world converged on Europe to help defeat the
German Empire in WWI (1914-1919). German troops were still using the primitive
“pocket watch” designs while Allied troops had a wide range of new models like
small silver pocket watch cases fitted with leather straps and displayed
radium-illuminated porcelain dials protected by the aforementioned shrapnel
guards.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Wristwatches were now became a wartime necessity, and
companies were scrambling to keep up with the demand. One company that earned a
big profit during this time was Wilsdorf & Davis, Ltd., founded in 1905,
and later renamed The Rolex Watch Company, Ltd., in 1915. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Hans Wilsdorf, the
founder and director of Rolex, was a strong proponent of wristwatches since the
turn of the century. He continued to experiment with their accuracy and
reliability. In fact, he was even credited for sending the first wristwatches
to the Neuchatel Observatory (Switzerland), for accuracy testing. They all
passed the rigorous battery of tests, which encouraged Wilsdorf to push them
even further.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
After the Great War, many soldiers returned home with
souvenir trench watches. When these war heroes were seen wearing wristwatches,
the public’s perception quickly changed, and wristwatches were no longer teated
as feminine accessory. In the final years of the war, wristwatches began to see
numerous improvements. Case makers like Francis Baumgartner, Borgel and
Dennison introduced water resistant and dust resistant designs. Rolex
introduced its first truly waterproof wristwatch, the Oyster, in 1926.<o:p></o:p></div>
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New models were introduced with fixed horns which gave them
a more finished appearance. New metal dials superceded porcelain quite
susceptible to cracking and chipping and the fragile glass crystals were
replaced with a newly invented synthetic plastic for more durability. By 1931,
they were accurate, waterproof and self-winding.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The success of the wristwatch was born out of necessity, and
Rolex continued this tradition by introducing a series of Professional, or
“tool watches” in the early 1950s. These models, including the Submariner,
Explorer, GMT-Master, Turn-O-Graph, and Milgauss were also designed out of
necessity, as they included features and attributes that were essential for a
specific task or profession.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Because of its rugged design, variations of the Submariner
have been issued to numerous militaries, including the British Royal Navy,
Royal Canadian Navy and British Royal Marines, as well as the U.S. Navy Seals.
Over the years, dozens of companies like Omega, Benrus and Panerai have also
supplied specialty watch models for military duty.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Thus, the role of the wristwatch seems to have come full
circle. With the general public now leaning toward high-tech, digital gadgets,
the classic mechanical wristwatch has once again found its home on the wrists
of those brave soldiers who welcomed it some 100 years ago.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-1314930997283453404.post-62874207274076189612015-01-05T11:49:00.000-08:002015-01-05T11:49:21.223-08:00UMBRELLA<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<o:p> </o:p>We know that Umbrella is the most efficient means of
protecting us from sun and rain. And there must be a story behind its
invention. Let us see how it was invented and evolved.</div>
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There is desert like environment in northern Africa and
Middle East. The first recorded use of sun protecting parasol found in Ancient
Egypt, over 3500 years ago. Those parasols were simple configurations of palm
leaves attached to a stick, Egyptian parasols became an object used by nobles,
religious leaders and royalty.</div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvjb9kHIm1t4JW3UVZ9UhOwdO5xUegBzq2bsM-aB2GwDV4XOs1CdTzke-YvVJUp95OE-fL5UWP6oJaKsnuTZnhaaWQJd62tHvwHrSOso-mG0j2aDbvRYCJGvwAXkPSAkEDvh_ElP2wdcI/s1600/umbrella-04.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvjb9kHIm1t4JW3UVZ9UhOwdO5xUegBzq2bsM-aB2GwDV4XOs1CdTzke-YvVJUp95OE-fL5UWP6oJaKsnuTZnhaaWQJd62tHvwHrSOso-mG0j2aDbvRYCJGvwAXkPSAkEDvh_ElP2wdcI/s1600/umbrella-04.jpg" height="400" width="392" /></a></div>
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Several hieroglyphic paintings found in ancient Egyptian
ruins depicted the life of royalty and gods, which all had parasols over their
heads. There was a tradition in neighboring kingdom of Assyria where only the
kings had the right of protection under elaborate made parasols.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Due to the sunny weather over the entire year, Egyptian and Assyrians
never developed waterproof parasols and create umbrellas. But Umbrellas were
actually invented in China in 11th century BC, where first silk and waterproof
umbrellas started being used by nobility and royalty. Multi-tiered umbrellas were
used as a sign of power influence by Chinese Emperors. Similar tradition was being
followed across the region, and rulers of Siam and Burma where parasols with eight
to 24 layers were very popular.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The English word "umbrella" was derived from the
Latin word "umbra", meaning shadow, with "umbrella" being a
poetic word form meaning "little shadow". During 1st millennia BC,
umbrellas came to Ancient Greece and Rome and become a luxurious female
accessory regardless of whether its function was protection from the sun or
rain, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>. It was found that both Greek and
Roman women had umbrellas often carried not by noble women but by slaves and
servants, sometimes mounted on horses or carriages. Men, however, viewed
umbrellas as female item only.<o:p></o:p></div>
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It was only with the arrival of Renaissance that umbrella regained
its popularity, most commonly by the nobility and royalty in late 16<sup>th</sup>
and 17<sup>th</sup> century in France, Italy and England. Umbrellas were generally
made from silk and other expensive materials unable to provide long lasting
protection from rain, but the design for opening and closing resembled those used
by Roman and Greece women in 4th century BC. </div>
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Around 1800, an umbrella whose frame
consisted of wooden rods and whalebone weighed around 10 lbs. Even Wellington,
the victor of Waterloo, owned an umbrella made of waxed canvas which included a
rapier hidden in the handle.<o:p></o:p></div>
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As the centuries past, umbrellas slowly become popular
across entire Europe but the tradition of its female use continued until
mid-18th century. It was an Englishman - Jonas Hanway (1712-1786) - who made
the umbrella popular among everyone. Hanway’s memorial plaque in Westminster
Abbey honours his commitment to abandoned children and prostitutes, but does
not mention his ground breaking service to the rain umbrella. </div>
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He, the founder of
English Magdalen Hospital, was the person who dared to appear in public
carrying an umbrella in almost all occasions. Openly people made fun of him but
finally male population of England accepted the use of umbrella by 1790s.<o:p></o:p></div>
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An Englishman, Samuel Fox from Sheffield, at the time of Her
Majesty Queen Victoria, invented the steel frame of umbrella in 1852 which made
it light weight. In 1852 John Gedge announced a self-opening rain umbrella from
Paris. From then on the umbrella has hardly changed: black, slim, and precisely
rolled it still today protects the gentleman in the City of London and the rest
of the world.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Different varieties of frames whether gold-plated or in
sterling silver, leather, horn, precious woods and cane, such as whangee and
malacca, or with an integrated flashlight, pencil, watch, pill box, compass or
drinking glass, almost all exist in the market.<o:p></o:p></div>
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In the 1920s, Hans Haupt in Berlin constructed the first
telescoping pocket umbrella and with it founded the Knirps company in Berlin
("Knirps" is a German word with the meaning "little guy".
The "Knirps" then began to revolutionise the world of umbrellas. In
1936 another innovation hit the market from Germany, the first automatic pocket
umbrella with the name "Lord & Lady".<o:p></o:p></div>
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The small wonder umbrella "Knirps" experienced a
real boom during this decade. During the 1960s with the introduction of nylon fabrics
in manufacturing, umbrellas were manufactured in an unbelievable variety of
colours and patterns. The rain umbrella became slimmer, lighter, flatter, and
much more durable. The Knirps became the standard gift for birthdays, name
days, Mother’s Day, Christmas, Easter, and other holidays. After then, due to the
imports of cheap umbrellas from the Far East, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the umbrella lost its image as a status
symbol.<o:p></o:p></div>
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It was only during the last years of the 20th Century that new
experiments were done on umbrellas. This time the new materials and functions
came from the Far East itself. Lightweight umbrellas made of aluminium and of fibreglass
become popular. New frames with a double automatic mechanism for closing and
opening, new fabrics, and new coatings (such as Teflon) in umbrellas were
available in the market.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Advancements of umbrella technology and manufacture continue
to be refined to this day, with many patents being submitted on every year (for
example umbrella design that can withstand storm winds of up to 100km/h and
can't be turned inside out). As of 2008, majority modern of umbrella production
comes from several provinces of China which are home of thousands umbrella
companies.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Mamta Ranihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06749722826200210165noreply@blogger.com2